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V ol. 38

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JOURNAL
OF THE

JULY 1946

Reorganization of the Halifax Water System. By H. W. L. Doane ... 799 ©
Recent Developments in Corrosion Control. By Sheppard T. Powell,

H. B Beacon: and 808
Planned Improvements for St. Loyis. By Thomas J]. Skinker and E. E. :
Metered Water Rate Structures. By G. B. Schunke .................. 838
Meter Cephalalgia—Committee Report 853
The Missouri River Development Program. By Lewis A. Pick ....... 89
The Economic Uses of Our Inland Waterways. By E. B. Black ....... Siete
Utilization of Rivers in the Public Interest. By W. W. Horner ....... 878 a
Responsibility for Industrial and Municipal Wastes. By Abel Wolman 883 ice
Should Your City Have a Municipal Forest? By George A. Duthie ... 888 —
All correspondence relating to the publication of papers should be addressed to

Fifth Avenue, New York 18, N.
$7.00 of a member’s dues are applied as subscription to the Jobana.
Additional single copies to members—50 cents raat
Single copies to non-members—75 cents

AMERICAN WATER WORKS
=
| fi

That was a fair question ata 10M.G.D. in- the added safety factor of a 0.5 ppm residual
dustrial water plant in 1943 when algal on the outlet.
growths in settling basins and storage reser- This is just another instance of multi-pur-
voirs were getting the upper hand. In 1944, _ pose prechlorination—onc of the many cases
however, the prechlorination dosage wasin- _ where it is helping to solve problems of al-
creased to between 2.5 and 3.0 ppm.The free = gae control, coagulation, in-
chlorine residual thus achieved has he!ld _ creased filter runs or improved
down the algae and in addition has reduced water quality. Why not call
slime problems throughout the mill. your W & T Representative to-

But that’s not all — the free chlorine re- day and let him show you how
siduals maintained by prechlorination carry _ prechlorination can be put to

i i work in y
_ through an open storage reservoir to give ork in your plant

"The Only Safe W ater is a Sterilized W ater"

WALLACE & TIERNAN _—

COMPANY, INC.
MANUFACTURERS OF CHLORINE AND AMMONIA CONTROL APPARATUS
RK 1, NEW JERSEY * REPRESENTED IN PRINCIPAL CITIES

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Reproduction of the contents, either as a whole or in part, is forbidden,
unless specific permission has been obtained from the Editor of this JouRNAL.
The Association is not responsible, as a body, for the facts and opinions
advanced in any of the papers or discussions published in its proceedings.

OURNAL

OF THE

Vol. 38

July 1946 No. 7

Reorganization of the Halifax Water System

By H. W. L. Doane

or on Apr. 8, 1946, at the Canadian Section Meeting, Niagara Falls, Ont., Can.

HE city of Halifax is situated on a

hilly peninsula varying in elevation
from sea level to 247 ft. above. This
range causes the water system to be
divided into two levels: the low service,
which supplies everything up to ap-
proximately 125 ft. elevation; and the
high service, which supplies the higher
levels of the city, above 125 ft.

The high-service supply comes from
Spruce Hill Lake at an elevation of 364
ft. and is carried to the city through a
15-in. main laid 78 years ago, in 1868.
This lake is approximately 6 miles from
the city.

The low-service supply is obtained
from Long and Chain Lakes at an ele-
vation of 206 ft. and is carried to the
city through two cast-iron pipes, one
24-in. and the other 27-in. The 24-in.
pipe was laid 84 years ago, in 1862,
and the 27-in. pipe was laid 53 years
ago, in 1893. The low-service lakes
are only about 2 miles from the gel

During the war, Big Indian Lake,
which lies about 3 miles from Long
Lake, was tapped, and the water
pumped over to Long Lake through a
24-in. concrete pipe.

At present, the city is taking 14 mgd.
from the lakes, approximately 5 mil.
gal. going to the high service and 9 mil.
gal. to the low service. The 15-in.
high-service supply main from Spruce
Hill Lake will bring in only about 2
mgd. so the other 3 mgd. has to be
pumped from the low service into the
high. A 3-mil.gal. storage reservoir is
located at the north end of the city on
the high service and acts as a reserve
against fire or pump failure.

There is a pumping station on the
27-in. low-service line and a new in-
stallation is being completed which will
pump on both low-service lines, the 24-
in. and 27-in. This is expected to 1m-
prove the service greatly and will be
a a help with fires.

”

j me
AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION AN :

800

History of Halifax Supply

‘The original water system of the

city of Halifax was installed by the
- Halifax Water Company in 1844. The
supply came from the Chain Lakes
through a 12-in. cast-iron pipe. The
water was actually turned on 98 years
ago, in 1848. This 12-in. pipe was
later removed and used again in the
city ; some of it is very thin.

In 1861, the city purchased the wa-
ter works from the company and oper-
ated it for 11 years, under a paid com-
mission. From then until recently it
was operated by a committee of the city
council, and now it is in the control of
a commission again.

As the city grew and the demands
increased, pressure fell off. Periodi-
cally new mains were added to remedy

- this, but finally the consumption per
capita averaged 350 gpd. with peaks of
500 gpd., and it was decided to meter
the city. This was done in two periods,
1909 and 1920, and the consumption
was reduced to less than half the previ-
ous amounts. Some of the original
- meters were still in service when the
commission took over.

Many of the original pipes were laid
with wooden joints and, as there is no
groove for lead, the only way to insure
safety is to place a Dresser coupling
around each joint when it leaks. Since
at present more ‘than half the water

coming into the city is being lost, it
looks as if there is a big job ahead
for somebody.

- Halifax is fortunate in having avail-
able close to the city a supply of good
soft water free from pollution in its
natural state, and it is just a matter of
properly safeguarding it for the citi-
zens to have a suitable supply of water.

The problem facing the commission
in taking over this system was rather

JOURNAL—AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION |

Vol. 38

overwhelming. During the war, the
population of Halifax grew almost over-
night from 70,000 to 130,000 people, all
placing demands on the transportation
systems, civic services, housing, hotels,
restaurants, theaters, and so on.

It was amazing, though, what was
accomplished, due to the enthusiastic
co-operation of the citizens. They
opened their homes to all service per-
sonnel and helped in many ways.

One of the services taxed most was,
of course, the water system. It was
already just about at the limit of its
capacity, and this wartime demand al-
most caused it to collapse. Water was
getting so scarce that another lake had
to be tapped; a pumping station and
some 3 miles of 24-in. reinforced con-
crete pipe were installed.

System Near Breakdown

In 1943 conditions were as follows:

Much of the water system had just
about lived its normal life and was due
for replacement. The population had
increased from 70,000 to 130,000 and
there were more ships leaving Halifax
than any other port in the world except
one in England. These ships and the
Navy, as well as the Army and Air
Force, all required large quantities of
water, and at times required it in a
great hurry.

The public relations of the water de-
partment were bad. The staff had been
depleted in order to keep other services
going, and could not be replaced.
There were only eight men to operate
the distribution system, repair leaks,
attend fires, and the like. Some of
these men were so worn out and run
down that their health was endangered.
How they ever kept the system oper-
ating is a mystery.

Out of some 13,000 customers
meters, nearly 7,000 were out of action,

an
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"ol. 38

the
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ation
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was
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PRIVATE POST CARD ey

Willing Water Says: ‘Read this. It Will Save You Money!”’

Here’s How You Can Stop Water Waste:

_ Check all water outlets from attic to cellar.

_ Watch hot water taps particularly. Hot water washers are affect-

ed by heat.

3. Check flush tanks of toilets. Place laundry bluing in the tank,
If there is a leak the water in the bow! will be colored. Try this
more than once; the leak may not be discovered the first time.

4. Don’t leave the garden hose turned on over night. Each time it is
used turn the tap off.

5S. Check waste in public washrooms of industrial plants, railroad
stations, city recreation rest rooms; hotels.

Yr =

6 Whether residential, commercial, municipal or industrial customer,
check for leaks ; stop waste ; repair leaks immediately.
TURN IT OFF.

PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION OF HALIFAX

Fic. 1. Fighting Waste by Direct Mail

and so the bills were just estimated.
Most of the meters were from 25 to 40
years old, and many had not been in
jor repairs for years. Some meters had
never been read and others had not
been read for years. Sometimes the
meter readers just “faked” a reading.

The master meters at the lakes were
worn out and had not been registering
for some years.

The chlorinating equipment
manually operated, obsolete and inade-
quate; and at times the staff resorted
to the old drip method, using chloride
of lime.

As wartime house-building had not
been regulated, all sorts of dwellings
sprang up on the watersheds, and the
lakes were highly polluted. Escherichia
coli counts were very high.

single, constant-speed

was

electric

pump had been installed on one of the
supply mains in an effort to get more
water through this pipe, and it had
been operating continuously without
even time out for normal maintenance.
The concrete distribution reservoir
in the city seemed ready to collapse.

HALIFAX REORGANIZATION nee 801

The supply mains had not been
cleaned since the war began.

In parts of the city, the water avail-
able for fire-fighting was inadequate.
At the First Baptist Church fire, it
“would hardly fill a garden hose.” At
Cranes, Ltd., the pumpers sucked the
mains dry. So both of these fires re-
sulted in serious total losses. The fire
underwriters were seriously consider-
ing a jump of possibly 30 per cent in
the fire insurance rates.

Some of the dams at the lakes were
in bad condition, and at one time there
was only about two weeks’ supply of
water remaining in the low-service
lakes.

Remedial Measures

City and provincial health authori-
ties and other interested bodies were
much alarmed at the situation, and at
this time the Provincial Board of Com-
missioners of Public Utilities ordered
an investigation.

The investigation was carried out by
the Engineering Service Company, a
local firm of consulting engineers, and,
although it was somewhat out of their
line, they ended up by actually oper-
ating the system for about a year and
a half themselves. Great credit is due
them for the work they performed and
the valuable data they collected.

Creation of Public Service Commis-

sion

Acting on a recommendation of the
Engineering Service Company to the
Public Utilities Board, the city ap-
pointed a commission consisting of the
mayor, an alderman, three citizens at
large, and a civil engineer as manager.
This commission can operate, lease or
buy the water system. On _ recom-
mendation, its surpluses go to the city;
in return, the city guarantees its bonds.

802

The commission had to start from
the beginning in wartime. A manager
was appointed, and the staff was very
carefully picked, with particular em-
phasis on “courtesy and efficiency” so
that the work would be done properly
and at the same time good public rela-
tions and public confidence would be
built up.

A qualified accountant was placed at
the head of the accounting department,
a top-notch engineer was put in charge
of design and another in charge of
outside operations. Heads of depart-
ments were sent to other cities to study
the latest methods.

The commission took over the oper-
ation of the system on Jan. 1, 1945, and
the results accomplished to date, despite
the run-down system and wartime con-
ditions, are really astonishing.

A valuation of the system was pre-
pared, which in itself was a tremendous
undertaking, since many of the old
records are very sketchy. The value
at “prudent original cost” as deter-
mined by the Public Utilities Board
was something over $6,000,000, with

cost less depreciation a little less than

‘

$5,000,000. This is the “rate base.”

Bonded indebtedness is $2,000,000,
with a sinking fund of $700,000 or a
net debt of $1,300,000 for a property
worth nearly $5,000,000. Financially,
then, the department was sound. There
was, however, a definitely available re-

serve of only $24,000, with outstand-

ing accounts of over $300,000, some
of which were 19 years old. These ac-
counts included the working capital
necessary to operate the system. Since
there was no reserve for “deferred
maintenance” and there was about $1,-
000,000 worth of work to be done, a
city already overtaxed to provide civic
services to such a large wartime popu-
lation and shipping demands was in a

JOURNAL—AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION

Vol

The water rates are low and bring
a 6 per cent return on a rate base of
$2,000,000. Nearly half the water was
apparently being sold below cost. Ip.
accurate or inoperative meters were
losing over $100,000 per year for the
city all through the war. One cys.
tomer was being billed for 2 mil.gal
and was actually using 6 mil.gal per
month. Another was billed $1.00 per
month and was using water worth $1)
per month. The rates are so inade-
quate, and present-day construction
costs so high, that revenue will not
support new extensions. In some
cases, the customers must pay as high
as 60¢ per front-foot per year in addi-
tion to the meter rates in order for an
extension to pay carrying charges on
the capital investment.

Bills had been distributed by hand
every six months, and many bills were
over six months in preparation before
being sent out. Sometimes the cus-
tomer had left the city before the bil
was rendered, and sometimes the prop-
erty had been sold.

Financial Accomplishments of Com.
mission

The commission has designed new
flexible meter routes to allow for new
developments. Every house and vacant
lot and street is numbered and the aé-
ressograph plate number shows where
the account is located.

Machine billing and collecting has
been installed, so that about 250 bilk
can be sent out daily for quarterly bill
ing.

A 10 per cent discount is allowed for
cash, with a discount period of 30 days
Accounts may be paid at certain bank
throughout the city as well as at the

commission office.
A modern cost-keeping system ha:
been installed with a stockkeeper, a:

though, even with $100,000 worth 0

Fec
and
if
tom
Thi
lan
T
tion
$57
coll
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19
T
and
ever
time
H

abc

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4
:
rec
Sta
can
1
3

V ol. 38

bring
aise of
T Was
In-
were

or the

Action
not
some
high
addi-
or an
eS On

hand
were
efore
cus-
e bill
Prop-

Com.

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acant
e ad-
vhere

has
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bill

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th ol

July 1946

Protect YOUR
Water Supply!

LEASE note the area enclosed
within the dotted lines. The
land portion, comprising 5655
acres, is the WATERSHED or
original source of the Halifax
water supply. All this comprises
a RESTRICTED AREA, patrolled
daily by our Sanitary Patrols.

Fishing, swimming, hunting, and
above all the building of camp
fires, are positively FORBIDDEN.
Will smokers, too, please co-
operate and so preserve the valu-
able stand of trees there—which
actually are the guardians of
YOUR water supply.

Public Service Commission
of Halifax
44 GRANVILLE ST., HALIFAX

Fig, 2.

stock on hand, there is still no stock
room.

The accounting system is based on
recommendations of the Wisconsin
State Railway Commission, the Ameri-
can Water Works Association and the
Federations of Municipalities of U.S.
and Canada.

In the past, owners only could be cus-
tomers, but now tenants can be also.
This change has been welcomed by the
landlords.

The Operating Department, in addi-
tion to collecting its own revenue of
$576,000, with bad debts of only $95,
collected some $340,000 of the city’s
old accounts dating back as much as
19 years.

The available staff was reorganized
and additional help picked up where-
ever it could be obtained under war-
time conditions and restrictions.

Halifax water has a pH value of
about 4.5 and so is somewhat corro-

Newspaper Advertisements Bring Public Co-operation

sive. As a result of this it was neces-
sary to blow out the service pipes to
931 homes with an electrically driven
pump, building up about 100 Ib. pres-
sure. There are apparently several
thousand services with a flow of less
than 2 gpm. which are being replaced
with new pipes as fast as possible.

Engineering Accomplishments of
Commission

To summarize the accomplishments
of the Engineering Department, it has
during only one year’s operation:

Repaired over 1,500 leaks in the
mains and sewers.

Established 24-hour service from the
work shop with a service truck always
available to help customers in difficul-
ties and to attend all fires and assist
the fire department.

Taken new measurements of 85 per
cent of the main valves, as the old

3 HALIFAX REORGANIZATION 803
=
al
RET gay ROA POND
| = S
'
‘ =
=- = 3
gav_ROAD H
4 st
;
SPRUCE '
“ WiLL =
‘ = LAKE =
¢

Found over 300 defective valves and
repaired 125 of these already.
Changed the location of 600 meters
from coal bins or manholes so they
could be properly serviced and read.
Replaced nearly 7,000 meters which
were not registering; repaired 981
meters and installed 1,186 on new
premises. There are still about 2,000
_ which will have to be replaced.
Repaired over 300 defective fire hy-
-drants, 125 of which were leaking.

Repaired the badly worn pumps and
‘motors at the Robie Street pumping
station at a cost of some $5,000; how-

ever, by altering the impellers to suit
- conditions, an annual saving in power
$2,500 is anticipated.
Provided daily coverage by sanitary
__ patrols of all the watersheds to lessen
_ pollution and prevent forest fires.
Greatly increased the fire supply so

that, in contrast to “practically no wa-
Bi at the First Baptist Church fire,
there were 24 streams at the Piercey
last year.

Installed master flow meters
_ automatic chlorinators at the lakes.

Constructed a new pumping station
containing three 5,000-gpm., fully auto-
matic, electrically driven centrifugal
pumps on the low service.

Repaired the dams and buildings at

with

the lakes.

Studied possible methods of water
treatment.

Studied the electrolysis problem,

which is serious.

Surveyed the supply lakes to deter-
mine if the levels could be raised to
provide more storage.

Surveyed possible additional sources
of supply for future requirements.

Investigated properties on the wa-
tersheds possibly causing pollution;
purchased some and arranged for suit-
able sanitary protection for others.

JOURNAL—AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION

Vol. 38

Located water works fixtures at
street intersections, and prepared many
loose-leaf plans, pocket size, for use of
the outside staff.

Kept daily records of rainfall, lake
levels, water and air temperatures,
wind, pH values, gallons pumped, ete,

Kept close liaison with the fire de-
partment.

Connected some dead ends to im-
prove the fire service; there are, how-
ever, many still to be eliminated.

Made studies of proper sizes of pipes
for possible future extensions.

Installed 111 new services to new
houses and laid over 5,000 ft. of new
mains.

Helped evacuate North End citizens
with commission trucks the night of the
magazine explosion, supplied them with
water during the next day and helped
return them to their homes the follow-
ing night.

Painted and lettered all commission
trucks, compressors, and other equip-
ment orange and black, with hydrants
the same colors so that the fire de-
partment can locate them readily at
night.

Arranged a pitometer survey for the
coming summer, since, after the master
meters were installed and customers’
meters repaired or replaced, it was
found that 51.5 per cent of the water
coming in from the lakes was being lost
or unaccounted for.

Installed electrically charged fish
screens to prevent eels from getting
into the system during the fall.

Improved the meter repair shop;
it is, however, still inadequate.

Consideration is being given to the
possible use of cement-lined pipe to
prevent corrosion. Some pipes 8
years old are almost as good as ever,
while others have corroded _ right

syste
and
they
and
One
raise

Al
helpe
them
able
rubb
pre

through the metal. One of the best

ipes

new
new

zens
with
Iped

low-

sion
uip-
ants

de-
at

pipes, 43 years old, has the original
bituminous coating almost intact. It
seems to be of a softer metal than the
others, and this is being investigated.
Wherever possible, extra bituminous
coatings are being applied before pipe
is laid.

The nominal operating expense of
the commission for 1945, excluding the
deferred maintenance (which was
done), was only about $4,000 more
than that of the former city water de-

partment

Employee Morale

When the commission took over the
system, the employees were tired out
and their spirits were low; many felt
they were being abused by the public
and that they were nobody’s children.
One of the biggest problems was to
raise their morale.

Among other measures which have
helped considerably were supplying
them with better accommodations, suit-
able equipment with which to work,
rubber boots and coats on loan, and
providing hot coffee and sandwiches

Stop Water Waste

And Cut Down Your Water Bilis!

ALIFAX citizens are wasting a SCANDALOUS amount of water
—so our engineers report. This waste not only raises water bills
but cuts down water pressure sorely needed for fire fighting. Here
are the principal causes of water waste and how to avoid them:
1. ing Taps: Many people with exposed
plumbing or cold cellars run their taps to pre-
vent freezing . This wasteful practice may
boost their water bills as much as TWO to
THREE times the usual figure. a
# have to pay for this water waste it be
much cheaper to have your pipes
a very simple and a relatively cheap pro-
cedure
2. Leaky Pipes: Remember that “a little leak
will sink a ship"—and likewise a little leak in
your water pipes will cause you to sink with
DISMAY when you get your water bill. So
look for leaks and have them stopped immed-
iately by your plumber
3. Faulty Toilets: After flushing stops if your toilet still flows even a
nere trickle this means WASTE and an increase in water bill. Get
your plumber to stop the trickle and you save money

Waste Not! Want Not!
Py
OF HALIFAX

44 Granville Street - Halifax

Hammering Home a Point

are in full swing.

Onc.
WARNING!
=

Wehe e Engineer that the wing streets will

¢ been a
be surface treated this summer. So, if you live on any of these streets

and want a new water service pipe to your house—

please telephone our Service Department AT ONCE
(3-1231) end gwe your order

Because once the new street surface is laid we cannot dig mT)
up except im cases of leaks or other greet urgengy

1S YOUR STREET HERE’

inghs Street Wesimount Street
Street Weinut Street
Binney Street Summit Street
Dresden Row Young Stree
Birmingham Street Street
tighton Street King .

Fic. 4. A Timely Tip to Customers '
for those who had to work overtime —
without any supper, especially in winter. |
Entertainments of various sorts have
=)

been organized, such as lectures, pic-—
ture shows, dances, etc., to which they |
can bring their ladies, and now they _

have their own social club, run the —
whole show themselves and at their |
own expense. i

A staff newspaper has been started _
called “The Pipe Line Post.” It is _
prepared and edited by the employees, ©
issues about once a month and carries —
all the news about anything which
might interest them.

Employees are encouraged -to offer
suggestions for better ways of doing
their work or serving the public, and
they are given a bonus for those ac- _
cepted.

Meter readers are encouraged by
means of a bonus system depending on |
how many readings they miss during _
the month. Last month two men went
through without missing one meter _
reading.

A bowling league and curling teams

38 July 1946 HALIFAX REORGANIZATION 805
at
vu
lake ‘
res,
ete.
de-
im- 2
MUBLIC SERVICE (OMMISS|ON
ister
was
ater
lost
fish
ting
nop;
the
to
8&7
ver.
‘ight
best
Fic.

806

The commission has established a
- group insurance plan with hospital and
i on contributory

benefits
basis, about half from the employees
and half from the commission. The
men get two weeks’ holiday with pay
year.

As a result of all this—plus a little
effort—the employees feel that they
really matter now. Their morale is
_ high, and they take a real pride in their
_ work, which is, to say the least, most
gratifying. Without their enthusiastic
2 co-operation, so much could never have
_ been accomplished in only one year.

Public Relations

In order to promote better customer
relations, the cheerful little sprite,

“Willing Water,” has been used in all
advertising, on customers’ bills, no-
tices and many other forms, and has
also been painted in blue on all equip-

JOURNAL—-AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION

Vol. 38

ment which is seen by the public ( Figs,
1-6).

Customers have been told just what
the problems are and what the commis.
sion is trying to do to solve them. This
has been done by means of newspaper
advertising and the radio. One out.
standing example of this was during
the winter of 1944-45, when it was
necessary to water as many as eleven
naval vessels at one time. Because of
the submarine activity, ships were only
in port for an hour or so. Of course,
because of the small mains, the pres-
sure dropped all over the city. The
citizens could not be told the reason
because of censorship regulations, but
newspapers and radio stations gave
them a hint. Once they understood,
they forgot their own inconvenience in
order to help win the war.

When it was necessary to shut off
the water to large sections of the city,

tions
dousl
those

Custc
On

wond
comm
that i
of its
the u
Pare

Sor
montl
ern a
small,
discot
tage
that 1

3,”
line
hou
pipe
star
ove
our
wat
cons
wou
dep
pres
and
Fic
the |
W sounc
top Y Waste”
. ; Fic. 5. Even Service Trucks Improve Public Relations

BIGGER Pipes Bring
BETTER Pressure!

HE Commission now uses

nothing smaller than
%” pipe for new service
lines—from street main to
house. In other days ‘2”
pipe was considered the
standard size

However, we changed
over to the %4” size because
our tests showed Halifax
water is slightly acid, and
consequently the larger size
would afford better protection against the formation of
deposits . . . Besides—the BIGGDR pipe brings BETTER
pressure!

Therefore if you are about to build—or renew your
house plumbing—forget the obsolete %” pipe. Go modern
and repalce at least with the larger %” size for all-round
satisfactior

ervice Commission

OF HALIFAX
44 Granville Streer- Halifax

Fic. 6. Willing Water Wins Friends

the public was advised through the
same media, and also by means of
sound trucks and personal telephone
calls. The newspapers and radio sta-
tions co-operated and helped tremen-
dously. Water trucks were sent to
those who did not hear the warnings.

Customer Complaints

On the whole, the citizens have given
wonderful support to the efforts of the
commission, and now seem to realize
that it is here to serve them to the best

f its ability. _But of course there are
the usual kickers all water works men

fare used to in their own towns.

Some like the bills
months right on time. They are mod-
ern and progressive. The amounts are
small, easy to pay and offer a 30-day
discount period they can take advan-
tage of conveniently. Others complain
that they only paid the city bills once

every three

HALIFAX REORGANIZATION

have to
If they

a year and why

should they
pay the commission oftener?
come after the discount date they howl |

when it is not granted. “Anyway we
do not like these new bills and cannot
understand them.”

Some like the commission because
it is independent, cannot be influenced
to do things which are not right, and
can get things done fairly quickly.
Others do not like this at all because —
they cannot pester the life out of their |
aldermen to get some special concession ©
to which they are not entitled and
which nobody else gets. Some like the
commission employees—“they are so
courteous and efficient.” Others say
they are a lot of “dumbbells.” Some
compliment the commission on the large
amounts it has already saved the city;
others say it is extravagant and waste-
ful.

Perhaps much of this ssounds very
familiar to water works operators; the |
commission is only going through the
usual “growing pains’ which most of
them have already experienced. One
certainly requires a sense of humor in
order to stay sane in this game.

The commission has received much
help from water departments of other
cities, the other local public utilities and
city officials. Of course a great deal of
work yet remains to be done before
Halifax again ;
supply, but the commission is confident _
that, with the methods outlined above,
this will come eventually.

Organization of this Public Service
Commission to operate the water de-
partment was a serious step for the city
council of Halifax to undertake, and it —
is to be congratulated on realizing that
something had to be done quickly and
immediately to overtake the ravages of
the war years and place the water sys-
tem back on its feet again.

has an efficient water _

807

nl. 38 July 1946
vhat
mis-
This
aper
out-

ring

Was
ven
e of
only
ITse,
ITes-

The
ison
but
rave |
e in } Ic
off
city,

mentals

corrosive gases,

N the last few years, improvements

of numerous technics for corrosion
control have been greatly accelerated.
This has been stimulated by the enor-
mous wartime development of water
supply systems of all kinds for military
and manufacturing establishments. A
complete account of these would in-
clude many inorganic and organic film-
forming chemicals, protective coatings

and new resistant materials. It is the
purpose of the present discussion to
present the authors’ experience with

two corrosion control procedures which
have proven successful in a number of
plants. These are calcium carbonate
scale and vacuum de-aeration of cold
water.

Because of the large volume of litera-
ture on the problem of corrosion con-
trol that has been published in recent
the authors will not discuss in
detail the generally accepted funda-
the mechanism of
sion. It suffices to say that corrosion,
which is a result of contact of water
with ferrous and non-ferrous materials,
would be practically non-existent if the
waters were free of oxygen and other
or if some steps were

years,

ot corro-

taken to protect the metal surfaces from
contact with these gases. This prob-
lem is more serious in industry than
in municipal water systems, due to the

Recent Developments in Corrosion Control

By Sheppard T. Powell, H. E. Bacon and J. R. Lill
Cons. Chem. Engr., Sheppard T. Powell, Baltimore, Md.
Prin. Asst., Sheppard T. Powell, Baltimore, Md.

Sr. Field Engr., Sheppard T. Powell, Baltimore, Md.
ss Presented on May 7, 1946, at the Annual Conference, St. Louis, Mo.

greater velocity of the water circulated
and to the higher temperatures usually
involved. The greatest single use for
water in many industrial plants is for
cooling, and when constant re-aeration
occurs, such as takes place when cool-
ing towers are employed, the corrosive.
ness of the supply is increased greatly,
In the interests of economy and te.
liability of operation, it is imperative
that corrosion of heat-transfer surfaces
be reduced to a minimum.

Controlled Calcium Carbonate Scak

Of all the treatments for inhibiting
corrosion, calcium carbonate scale is
the best known and most widely em
ployed. There are a few natural water
supplies in which calcium carbonate
exists in a state of equilibrium, and for
such waters little or no chemical treat-
ment is required since these tend t
precipitate a thin and uniform protective
coating. The waters of many of th
Great Lakes are of this type and are
therefore, relatively non-corrosive, 6
can be made so with minor readjust
ment of their pH value. Unforty
nately, most supplies are not so readil
and easily controlled, and readjustmer

Jou
hav
to €
anc}
scal
uati
prog
rant
tion.
intel
offer
cont
hibit
cussi
use ¢
Ike
plica:
I r(
paper
tions
temp
recen

of the hardness alkalinity of th
water is required to develop and con
trol the deposition of scale. The suv
failure of such treatment 4

cess OT

Caus

As
cium

vind
fa
|
be
sit
de
co
fes
42 va!
=
5
4q
=
I
|
808

lated
sually
for
is for
ration
cool-
Osive-
‘eatly,
rative
rfaces

Scale
biting
ale is
y ef
water
bonate
nd for
treat-
nd t
tective
of the
id are
ve, of
id just}
iforte}
readil
stmen!
of th

d con
1e sii
nt 4

July 1940

pends to a great extent on the ade-
quacy of the control and the mainte-
nance of specific conditions which are
favorable to the formation of a satis-
factory coating over metal surfaces.

Extension of the use of calcium car-
honate scale for prevention of corro-
sion and the control of excessive scale
deposition has been encouraged by the
constructive and able research of Pro-
fessor W. F. Langelier (1). He ad-
vanced the idea—now widely accepted
—of a calculated saturation index as a
means of predicting the corrosive or
scaling behavior of a natural water (2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). Previously, other
investigators had done work along
somewhat similar lines but had em-
ployed different methods for calculat-
ing and expressing their data. Since
Langelier’s work was published in the
JourNAL in 1936, additional papers
have been presented which attempted
to explain and correct certain discrep-
ancies between predicted and actual
scale deposition or corrosion. An eval-
uation or discussion of these several ap-
proaches to the problem is not war-
ranted here. It is the authors’ convic-
tion, however, that modification of the
interpretation of the saturation index
offers the most practical method for
controlling scale formation in-
hibiting corrosion. The present dis-
cussion covers certain limitations in the
use of this index which are often over-
looked or ignored, especially in its ap-
plication to circulating water systems.
Professor Langelier in his original
paper directed attention to such limita-
tions and has discussed the effect of
temperature on pH values in his most
recent papers (10, 11).

Causes of Difficulties

As a means of corrosion control, cal-
cium carbonate scale treatment has not

CORROSION CONTROL

809

given universally satisfactory results.
Dissatisfaction has not always been due
to failure to prevent corrosion. The
treatment often stops corrosion, but in
so doing forms a heavy deposit that
causes greater loss of heat transfer than
would have resulted from the products
of corrosion. Sometimes too, the type
of scale that is deposited is either por-
ous or bulky and not of the right type
to seal off the metal surfaces. Such
difficulties are not unusual, but can be
avoided by taking into account the
factors responsible for the deficiency
and by adjustment in the treatment to
correct their detrimental effect.

The difficulties most frequently en-
countered are:

1. Failure to form calcium carbonate
even when the calculated index is
highly positive.

2. Bulky, soft, porous scale offering
little protection and high resistance to
heat transfer, instead of the desired
thin, hard, dense protective film with
negligible insulating properties.

3. Variation of scale thickness over
a wide range of temperatures, resulting
in no protection of cold surfaces and
excessive scale on hot surfaces.

The causes of these difficulties are:

1. Failure to deposit scale is due to
the presence of substances, such as or-
ganic inhibitors resulting from sewage
or vegetable matter, which prevent pre-
cipitation of calcium carbonate. These
substances interfere in a comparable
manner with retardation of coagulation
and softening. Inhibition of scale may
be caused by treatment with organic
compounds or phosphates. Phosphates
introduce reactions not compensated
for in calculating the saturation index
and the resulting values are of uncer-
tain significance.

2. Excessive bulk is contributed to
deposits by inorganic suspended mat-

i
4
la

jou RN AL—AMERICA

ter such as fine silt, calcium carbonate
and calcium phosphate; and by algae
slimes. Suspended calcium car-
- bonate results from sudden or continu-
ous over-treatment with lime or caus-
tic, producing water softening reactions
- which are much more rapid than scale
- formation and occur throughout the
body of the liquid. High sodium alka-
linity appears to produce soft and por-
ous deposits rather than dense scale.

+08
Calculated Seturation Index
0.6
£04 7 —*=Marble Test Saturation Index
c
0.2
”
0 }
0 5.0 10.0 15.0
Chlorine Applied —ppm
Fic. 1. Comparison of Calculated and

Marble Test Saturation Index Values for a
Contaminated Circulating Water Before and
After Chlorination (Temperature 80°F.)

: 3. The deposition of a uniform scale
over a wide range of temperature can
be controlled by proper adjustment of
relations between pH and _ alka-
ae provided other interfering fac-
tors are eliminated or corrected.

Correction of Difficulties

Corrective measures common to the
first two types of difficulties and their
causes are:

1. Avoidance of the use of water
contaminated with turbidity, oil or the
inhibitors described above.

_ 2. Chlorination to oxidize organic
inhibitors and eliminate algae and slime.
3. Omission of phosphate salts and
organic compounds. These treatments
are incompatible with controlled cal-
cium carbonate scale.

4. Proper selection and feeding of
chemicals,

Vol. 38

An example of the effect of chlo.
rination on water in a badly contami.
nated supply is illustrated in Fig, J,
which represents a comparison be
tween the calculated Langelier Satura-
tion Index and the Marble Test Saty-
ration Index on water receiving vary-
ing degrees of chlorination. It will be
noted that the actual saturation index
approached the predicted or theoreti-
cal index as chlorine was increased to
destroy the organic inhibitors. There
have been many practical proofs of this
on a large plant scale. On several oe-
casions, where chlorination has _ been
instituted for slime and algae control
in circulating water systems, scale im-
mediately started to form on condensers
and other equipment, although no scale
problem had been experienced preced-
ing chlorination.

In Fig. 2 is shown a test specimen
tuberculation

indicating severe with
a later covering of scale. This speci-
men was in service for several weeks

with no treatment of any kind. Seri-
ous corrosion took place prior to the
treatment with lime and soda ash. The
saturation index was thereafter main
tained near + 1. Scale was not formed,
however, and corrosion continued at
practically the same rate as_ without
treatment until high-rate chlorination
was started. Improvement was noted
immediately as a result of the forma
tion of a protective coating when the
inhibiting effect of the organic matter
was eliminated by the applied chlorine.
The scale deposition was rapid as long
as sufficient chlorine was fed to main
tain a positive residual. This experi-
ence demonstrates the ability to lay
down scale following chlorination and
illustrates how the deposit coats ovet
the corrosion products formed during
the period when no protection was *

vided,

Jul

Fic

con
and
car

I
treé
typ

Fic.

|
sca
sat!
an
der
ent
pre
wit
+3
chi
aA
|
Fic
4
||

“ol. 38

chlo-
‘ami-
g. 1,

be-
tura-
satu-
yary-
be
ndex
reti-
d to
‘here
“this
oc-
been
ntrol
Isers
scale
ced-

men
with
Deci-
eeks
Seri-

1 at
hout
tion
oted
“‘ma-

the
itter
rine,
lc mg
ain-

lay
and
yver
ring
pro-

Severe Tuberculation Arrested by

Scale Coating

Fic. 2.

In Fig. 3 is illustrated the type of
scale deposited when the treatment is
satisfactorily controlled. Figure 4 is
an example of an undesirable bulky
deposit caused by the presence of algae
entrained with the calcium carbonate
precipitate. This deposit took place
with a saturation index of + 1.5 to
+2.0 in a seven-day period without
chlorination. Analysis showed it to
consist of 29.7 per cent organic matter
and 25.3 per cent calcium as calcium
carbonate.

Figure 5 shows the effect of chlorine
treatment in reducing the bulk of this
type of deposit after fifteen days’ ex-

(
s¢

Entrainment

Deposit of Fig. 4 Reduced by Con-
tinuous Chlorination

Fic. 5.

2
CORROSION CONTROL

Fig. 7.

Fic. 3. Effective Protection Provided by
Scale Coating

posure to the same water, but with
chlorine treatment sufficient to main-
tain a residual of from 0.3 to 0.5 ppm.
The specimen had been in contact with
treated water for 25 days without chlo-
rination.

The specimen shown in Fig. 6 illus-
trates the detrimental effect of high
sodium alkalinity. The make-up water
supplied to the system in question was
a blend of sodium zeolite-softened wa-
ter and hard water, and consequently
the sodium alkalinity of the water in
the system was extremely high. The
saturation index was + 0.9 to + 1.75,
and the residual chlorine was 0.3 to 0.5

Fic. 6. Soft Deposit by High So-

dium Alkalinity

Deposit of Fig.6 Two Weeks Later;
Corrosion Present

the 4
ned
Fic. 4. Bull by \lga
——_~
q
-

JOURNAL—AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION

T T T
Thin Scale at Low Temperatures
Corrosion at High Temperatures

Case A

0.5

—

Thin Scale at Low Temperatures

Heavy Scale at High Temperatures

|
Case B

Thin Scale at Both High and

Low Temperatures

0.5

Saturation index

Fic. 8.

100 120 140
Temperature —°F.

Calculated From pH
7 4 Measured at 80° F.

Corrected for Decrease
in Actual pH Between

80° and 150° F.

Saturation Index, 80° to 150° F.

Conventional and Corrected Satu-
ration Index Vs. Temperature for Three Dif-

a_ system.

Vol.

ppm. The specimen shown was in
service for seven days. The scale
formed was noticeably softer than when
hard water.only was used, or when the
alkalinity of the system was reduced,
later, by an acid feed. Softness of this
particular coating is indicated by the
finger marks on the specimen. As
shown in Fig. 7, the coating had be-
come objectionably heavy two weeks
later, and despite its thickness did not
give adequate protection against corro-
sion attack. The corrosion of the metal
surfaces is noted where the overlaying
scale had been removed. These few
illustrations demonstrate the ineffec-
tiveness of deposits if they are not of
the proper type or texture or if they
are not continuous and well bonded to
the surfaces.

The ideal scale coating for best pro-
tection with a minimum decrease in the
heat transfer rate is a thin, closely ad-
herent crystalline deposit that can
barely be seen. In fact, some of the
best protective scales cannot be easily
observed when wet and are only de-
tected when a drop of hydrochloric
acid is applied and the carbonate is re-
vealed by an effervescence of carbon
dioxide.

Control of Temperature Effects

The most frequent criticism of the
use of controlled scale has been that

the deposit is too heavy on hot sur-
faces and not heavy enough on cold

surfaces. Not infrequently, however,
the relations are exactly reversed ; and
there is an intermediate condition of
acceptable uniformity of scale thick-
ness over the entire temperature range
The temperature-total
solids factor in the Langelier formula
predicts decreasing solubility and in
creased scale as the temperature rises,

but in practice this is not always found.

«B12
In

15
no!
4 ten
led
1.0 per
wa
as
tio!
the
tio!
ear
]
t101
for
lini
at
3 1.0
per
in
sol:
que
_ reg
tiol
tur
0 of
diti
poi
tive
too
diti
wal
the
| _ de
ide
dic
Ca
con

July 1940

In seeking an explanation for this phe-

nomenon, a large number of water sys-

tems were studied. The conclusions
led to new control procedures for mini-
mizing objectionable effects of tem-
perature differences.
was found that if the actual pH, as well
as the saturation pH, is corrected to
the operating temperature, the satura-
tion index thus obtained will predict
the behavior of the water. A sugges-
tion along this line had been made
earlier by Larson and Buswell (12).
In a paper publishing this informa-
tion (13), the authors pointed out that
for any specific methyl orange alka-
linity there is a corresponding pH value
at which the decrease of pH with tem-
perature almost exactly equals the rise
in the Langelier temperature total
solids factor “C.”” Under these condi-
tions the saturation index, and conse-
quently the rate of scaling, is uniform
regardless of temperature. The devia-
tion in the index over a given tempera-
ture rise was considered to be an index
of uniformity which, under ideal con-
ditions, would be zero. If the control
point selected for deposition of protec-
tive scale requires too low a pH for the
alkalinity which exists, the uniformity
index will be positive and scale will be
too heavy on the hotter surfaces. This
is a common complaint ; however, con-
ditions can also be exactly reversed.
Figure 8 is an illustration of three
waters which behaved differently, al-
though the saturation index curves in-
dicated by the solid line are almost
identical, and each case would in-
dicate a heavy scale deposition at the
highest temperature. Actually only
Case B behaved as predicted by the
conventional method of calculating the
index, based on the pH observed
25°C. The broken lines show the in-
dex based on the actual pH, as well as

CORROSION

In general,

CONTROL

Alkalinity: pH Limits Which Will Miuiavies
the Effect of Temperature on the Amount
of Scale Deposition*

Alkalinity Actual pH
as Measured in the
“CaCO; Cold Water
8.10-8.65

a
8.90-9.50
8.90-9.70 mo

* These limits of alkalinity and pH are
those within which scale deposition has been
found to be sufficiently uniform on both cold
and hot surfaces to provide satisfactory
results when the calcium hardness was
manipulated to maintain the proper satura-
tion index value.

the saturation pH, at each temperature.
The results predicted by these curves
are in agreement with the reported be-
havior of the three waters.

Table 1 shows pH ranges for vari-
ous alkalinities which may be expected
to give satisfactorily uniform scale
thickness over a temperature range of

80°F. to 150°F. This is based on
work previously published and_ has
since been confirmed by additional
cases. These experiences clearly dem-

onstrate that the maintenance of a con-
trolled treatment, with adjust-
ment of the pH values for tempera-
ture changes, produces a satisfactory
and uniform scale on both hot and
relatively cold surfaces and thereby
secures complete protection against cor-

rosion for the entire system. er

Control of Saturation Index

scale

The chemical treatment required for
adjusting the saturation index in wa-
ter varies with the composition of the
supply. The chemicals most frequently
used and their adaptability for specific
uses are given in Table 2. In a closed
recirculating system, blowdown is a
control method of importa ance.

8.60—9.20

hen |
the

ced, |
this |
the

be-

not

TO-
etal

ing |
few |
Fec-

hey

to
|
the

ad-

the

ily

de-

ric
re-
on

lat

ld
ef,

tal

ila
d.

814 ae JOURNAL—AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION
WE

TABLE 2

Chemicals Frequently Used, and the Particular Function of Each,
in Adjusting the Saturation Index of Water

Condition To Be Chemical or
Adjusted Treatment

Increase hardness Lime
Decrease hardness
Increase alkalinity
Decrease alkalinity

Decrease alkalinity

Lime
Sulfuric acid

Increase pH _ Lime, soda ash, caustic soda

Sulfuric acid

Decrease pH
ax Recarbonation

Decrease pH

The program to be followed in es-
tablishing this treatment will vary with
conditions encountered but in general
will be guided by the following outline :

After analyzing the water supply and
determining the alkalinity, calcium
hardness, total solids and pH, the
operator must evaluate each of these
factors and alter the treatment to bring
about the desired saturation index.
Theoretically, any one of these factors
will modify the index, but it is not a
matter of indifference which variable
is selected for adjustment. The two
most important considerations govern-
ing the choice are (1) precipitation of
the calcium carbonate in the proper
physical condition to obtain a hard,
dense, adherent scale, and (2) elimina-
tion of objectionable differences in
scale thickness over the expected tem-
perature range.

Each of the chemicals previously
mentioned has its applications and
limitations. The addition of lime is
desired for increasing the scaling of a
water having a low concentration of
calcium ion. If lime is also used to
raise the pH, however, care must be
taken not to add it in amounts which
appreciably exceed that required for
the neutralization of free carbon di-
oxide. If this is done, softening reac-

tions will occur and objectionable pre-

Lime, zeolite softener
Lime, soda ash, caustic soda

Vol. 38

Manner in Which Chemical
(Ne Is To Be Used

Secondary treatment

Primary softening

Secondary treatment

Primary softening

Primary or secondary treatment
Primary or secondary treatment
Secondary treatment

Secondary treatment

cipitation of calcium carbonate will fol-
low, thereby resulting in a soft, non-
adherent coating. The same precau-
tion must be observed in the application
of soda ash, which will also soften the
water if used in sufficient amounts to
react with the non-carbonate hardness.
Therefore, if the pH value of the water
must be adjusted upward, careful con-
trol must be maintained to avoid such
reactions.

Having selected the treatment, it is
necessary to apply it properly. Con-
tinuous feed, proportional to flow, is
necessary if the latter varies signifi-
cantly. Batch treatments with chemi-
cals several times a day will not pro-
duce satisfactory results. If sulfuric
acid is applied to a circulating system
in order to decrease the alkalinity, it is
best to inject it into the hot water be-
fore discharging the water over the
cooling tower, in order to facilitate re-
lease of CO,. On the other hand, al-
kalis added to the hot-well will pick up
CO, from the air and increase the bi-
carbonates in the systems. If the in-
crease in the pH due to the removal of
CO, after acid treatment is insufficient,
it may be necessary to add caustic soda
or soda ash to the circulated water be-
fore it is pumped back into the system.

With observance of the precautions
and the modifications outlined we find

high

posi
cold
pe ISI

Ir
surf
give
ratic

C;
obta
F
of th
parti
unife
posit
in th

July 1940

that the results predicted by the Lan-
gelier Index are generally in close
agreement with the results obtained in
actual practice.

There is included in Table 3 a tabu-
lation of operating data for several
cooling systems using various types of
make-up water and treatment as shown
in Table 2. It will be noted that in
Case A a heavy scale was formed on
the hot surfaces and a light scale on the
cold surfaces with a high saturation in-
dex and a high uniformity index

In Case B a thin scale was formed on
the hot surfaces and none on the cold
surfaces, which would be expected, in-
asmuch as the saturation index was
negative and the uniformity index was
high.

In Case C there was no scale on the
condenser tubes since the saturation
index was negative and the uniformity
index was within the range of uniform
de-scaling.

In Cases D and E a thin uniform de-
posit was laid down on both hot and
cold surfaces although only a slightly
positive index was maintained.

In Case F corrosion occurred on hot
surfaces but adequate protection was
given to cold surfaces when the satu-
ration index was positive and the uni-
formity index was negative.

Case G shows the results which were
obtained in the same system as in Case
F when complete lime soda softening
of the make-up water was changed to
partial lime soda softening and the
uniformity index. was made slightly
positive by raising the total alkalinity
in the system.

In Case H the treatment resulted in
satisfactory protection on all surfaces.

Cold Water De-aeration

Frequently, in industrial water treat-
ment, it is neither practical nor permis-

CONTROL

sible to add corrosion-inhibiting chemi-
cals to the water. For extremely large
flows, the costs are often prohibitive if
chemical treatment is employed. Often
such supplies are extremely corrosive
due to low hardness or low alkalinity
typical of zeolite-softened or de-min-
eralized water or condensate. Vacuum
de-aeration is particularly adaptable to
such water as a practical corrosion cor-
rective measure, and equipment of this
type is now offered by a number of
manufacturers. Cold water de-aerators
have been installed to protect the carry-
ing capacity of long water mains, to
reduce corrosion and maintain heat
transfer in cooling equipment, and to
reduce corrosion in process water dis-
tribution systems and equipment using
zeolite-treated or de-mineralized water.
It is not too improbable to foresee their
use in protection of domestic water
piping and supply lines. The early his-
tory and development of cold water de-
aeration was covered in considerable
detail in a previous paper (14), but is
described briefly here for continuity of
the present discussion.

Equipment Design i

Single-stage de-aerators consist of a
vertical steel tank containing a stack
of staggered wooden slats with provi-
sion for producing a vacuum while the
water falls through the tower. The
slats are used to distribute the water
into thin films and permit the maxi-
mum release of the gases. The vacuum
can be produced by motor-driven
vacuum pumps or steam ejectors, the
choice of the method used depending
upon the location of the equipment,
availability of steam and other condi-
tions. In order to permit the water to
flow from the de-aerator by gravity, the
height of the tank and the elevation of
the water must be sufficient to over-

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CORROSION CONTROL

July 1946

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come the vacuum in the equipment. It
is desirable to so design the equipment
as to permit a positive head of water
over the pumps at all times. This in-
sures satisfactory priming and avoids
leakage of air into the water through
gland seals or other locations. The
practicability of vacuum de-aeration
has been demonstrated by the operat-
ing results obtained in a number of in-
stallations.

Storage Tank for

JOURNAL—AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION

De-aerated Water

The adaptability of this type of sys.
tem for inhibition of corrosion is now
a matter of evaluation based on local
conditions and comparison of costs
with other corrective measures. Theo.
retical removal of oxygen may be cal-
culated and the relation between re.
sidual oxygen and vacuum required to
de-aerate the water at various tem.
peratures can be computed with a fair
degree of accuracy.

V ol. 8

20-in. Manhole

De-aerator
Outlet

July

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Fic. 9. Typical Arrangeme De-aerator and Storage Tank tion:

V ol, 38 CORROSION CONTROL
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Fic. 10. Typical Arrangement of Tank and Floating Cover for Storage of Vacuum De-
aerated Cold Water
The results generally obtained from bility of the process for large opera-
a well-designed single-stage unit are tions. A typical design of a 2,000-
of the order of 0.2 ml. or less of oxy- gpm. installation is illustrated in Fig. _
gen per liter, while multiple-stage units 9, which shows the relative locations of
are capable of reducing the concentra- the de-aerator and storage tank. In
tion of oxygen to less than 0.05 ml. per Fig. 10 is shown the storage tank
liter. Since carbon dioxide is a more equipped with a floating cover to per-—
soluble gas than oxygen, its removal mit storage of de-aerated water with-
is not as easily effected but the concen- out danger of re-entrainment of air.
tration can be reduced to 1 ppm. or less The equipment was installed to in- ©
una bY adequately designed and operated sure a non-corrosive supply of com- |
wate F equipment. pletely softened water to an elaborate
Many installations have been made and critical process whose satisfactory
e with capacities ranging from a few gal- operation precluded any corrosion — an
| lons per minute to as great as 90,000 products in the supply. The storage
gpm. in one plant. The need for large tank with its floating cover was neces-
quantities of non-corrosive soft water sary to insure an ample supply of wa- _
— | for war industries resulted ina demand ter at all times, regardless of surges ©
for such equipment and these installa- which might be temporarily greater
k | tions have demonstrated the practica- than the capacity of the de-aerator.

820

Costs and Results

The initial cost of vacuum de-aera-
tion equipment is relatively high in
comparison with the initial cost of the
chemical feeders for other types of
treatment. The maintenance and oper-
ating costs, however, are generally less
than would be incurred either for
chemical de-aeration or some of the
corrosion inhibitors.

Frequently, the initial cost of vacuum
_ de-aerating equipment has proven to

be insignificant when compared to the
losses incurred as a result of corrosion
losses and outage of equipment result-
_ ing from corrosion attacks on appara-
tus.
W. H. Attwill (15) reports in a
_ recent article on experiences using a
cold water de-aerator to prevent cor-
- rosion of heat exchange equipment by
circulating water that was continu-
ously re-aerated over a cooling tower.
This installation for 1,500 gpm. cost
$8,100 to install; and operating costs,
including the additional pumping of
water, averaged $600 yearly. The au-
_ thor stated that the de-aerator paid for
itself in less than two years’ time by
reduction in condenser tube corrosion
alone.
_ In Fig. 11 is shown a recently in-
stalled de-aerator designed to treat:
sodium- and hydrogen-zeolite-softened
water. The effluent from the de-aera-
- tor was used to cool highly critical
equipment and then used as feedwater

_ for boilers. Incorporation of the de-

aerator into the system was decided
upon after a study of the requirements
and the predicted improvement and
savings which would accrue. The
major factors involved:

1. Saving in water by circulating the
supply through a cooling system and
subsequent use of the heated water for
boiler feed purposes.

JOURNAL—AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION

Vol.

2. Making possible the use of a mix.

ture of hydrogen- and sodium-zeolite
softened water for cooling critical fep.
rous equipment without fear of failug
due to corrosion.

3. Inhibition of further corrosion jp
old pipelines already seriously gg,
roded.

4. Elimination of difficulties prey
ously experienced as a result of pilot
valve stems sticking due to the ae
cumulation of deposits on the valy
stems.

Previous to the installation of th
vacuum de-aerator, sodium sulfite and
caustic soda were added to the soft
water to prevent corrosion but, due to
the great expense involved, the sulfite
was discontinued. The caustic alone
is believed to have retarded corrosion
considerably, but difficulty from warped
gas valve gates and leaks in piping still
occurred. The cost of the sulfite to
treat the supply would have been ap-
proximately $14,000 per year if. this

11. Cold Water Single-Stage 2,500
gpm. Vacuum De-aerator

July

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July 1946 CORROSION

Cold Water Four-Stage 30,000-
gpm. Vacuum De-aerator

had been continued at the rate at which
it had been used initially.

One of the most recent large-capacity
installations was made at a plant in the
state of Washington, where a number
of units of 3,000-gpm. capacity each
were put in service. A battery of ten of
these units is shown in Fig. 12. Each
de-aerator is 11 ft. in diameter by 56
it. high, mounted on a platform ap-
proximately 60 ft. from the ground.
The units were designed for four-stage
de-aeration. The tanks are rubber
lined and the vacuum-producing equip-
ment consists of Ingersoll-Rand ejec-
tors with barometric condensers.

It is apparent that cold water de-
aeration can be justified under many
conditions and the initial cost of equip-
ment is actually not too significant com-
pared to the advantages accruing from
de-aeration. Provided that the initial
installation can be justified, there are
several indirect benefits to be realized

from this method of corrosion control.
Unlike other treatments in which it is
necessary to maintain the concentra-
tions of inhibiting chemicals or a possi-
ble saturation index above a certain
minimum, there is no such critical limit

CONTROL
involved when vacuum de-aeration is
used.

testing is required to insure satisfactory
performance. There are few moving
parts to wear or get out of order.
After the equipment is in service and

has acceptably met the guarantee re- |
quirements, it should need no more at- —
tention than a wooden slat degasifier.

Vacuum de-aeration does not result
in any major change in mineral com-
position of the water. Removal

which depends on the amount of car-
bon dioxide present initially. Usually

the removal of carbon dioxide is con-—

sidered satisfactory when not more
than 2 ppm. are left in the effluent.

The removal of oxygen does not effect ©
any noticeable change in pH and for —

single-stage units removal down to 0.2
ml. per liter is usual, although with
special designs or multi-stage units this
can be reduced to the normally accepted
zero.

Pilot Plant for Study of Corrosion
Control

Any corrosion preventive program

is wasted effort unless sufficient atten-—
tion is given to control and testing. —
The regular analytical tests and peri- |

odic examination of equipment should
be supplemented by pilot plant tests.
For a study of circulating water sys-

tems, the authors favor an arrange-—

ment as shown in Fig. 13. This allows
the rapid determination of the results

of various treatments under varying |
Test spool

conditions of operation.
apparatus to “sample” the action of the

water is useful to determine the prog- —

ress of the treatment. The spools, or
test lengths of pipe, can usually be by-
passed and removed for examination.

af
.

Moreover, no additional super-
visory labor or extensive analytical ©

of
most of the carbon dioxide results in
an increase in pH value, the amount of |

val
colite.
ailure
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Schematic Arrangement of Pilot Plant for Scale and Corrosion Studies

Fic. 13.

7 ol, 1946

Vhen controlled scale is being used, as
check on the calculated index values,
tual stability tests using the Marble
est or the Enslow Indicator should be

ade at frequent intervals (16).

ferences

| LANGELIER, W. F. The Analytic Con-
trol of Anti-Corrosion Water Treat-
ment. Jour. A.W.W.A., 28: 1500
(1936).

) MassinkK, A. & HeyMANN, J. A. Sig-
nificance of Hydrogen-Ion Concentra-
tion in Drinking Water and Particu-
larly for the Business of Water Sup-
ply. Jour. A.W.W.A., 8: 239 (1921).

3. TutmMANS, J. Die Chemische Unter-
suchung von Wasser und Abwasser.
Wilhelm Knapp Halle (Saale) (2d
ed., 1932).

to Prevent Corrosion. Jour. A.W.
W.A., 27: 220 (1935).

5, Hate, Frank E. Pipe Corrosion Ex-
periments, Catskill Supply, New York
City. Jour. A.W.W.A., 26: 1315
(1934).

Effect of Excess Lime Upon
Corrosive Soft Water. Jour. A.W.
W.A., 27: 1199 (1935).

7, Bayuis, JoHN R. Prevention of Cor-

Progress in the chemical condition-

ng of water to prevent scale or to con-
rol corrosion has not kept pace with
brogress in the control of tastes and
hors. This is undoubtedly due to the
act that the average water customer
loes not know what can be done to
protect his plumbing, particularly his
hot water system, and would object to
e increase in rates which would be
equired by many water supplies if they
ssumed the added burden of proper
ale and corrosion control. When the
verage customer learns that replace-
ent every 2 or 3 years of a hot water
ank, and possibly all of his hot water

Bayuis, R. Treatment of Water

DISCUSSION—B. A. Poole
Director, Bureau of San. Eng., State Board cf Health, Indianapolis, Ind.

823

rosion and Red Water. Jour. A.W.
W.A., 15: 598 (1926).

8. Hoover, CHARLES P. & MONTGOMERY,
James M. Reduction of Carbonate
Hardness by Lime Softening to the
Theoretical Limit. Jour. A.W.W.A.,
21: 1218 (1929).

9. Hoover, CHARLES P, Practical Applica-
tion of the Langelier Method. Jour.
A.W.W.A., 30: 1802 (1938).

10. LANGELIER, W. F. Chemical Equilibria
in Water Treatment. Jour. A.W.
W.A., 38: 169 (1946).

Effect of Temperature on the
pH of Natural Waters. Jour. A.W.
W.A., 38: 179 (1946).

12. Larson, T. E. & Buswett, A. M. Cal-
cium Carbonate, Saturation Index and
Alkalinity Interpretations. Jour. A.W.
W.A., 34: 1667 (1942).

13. Powerit, S. T., Bacon, H. E., & Lit,
J. R. Corrosion Prevention by Con-
trolled Calcium Carbonate Scale. Ind.
Eng. Chem., 37: 842 (1945).

14. Powett, S. T. Cold Water Vacuum De-
Aeration. Sixth Annual Water Con-
ference of the Engineers Society of
Western Pennsylvania (1945).

15. Atrwitt, W. H. Proc. Am. Petroleum
Inst., III, 22: 93 (1940); Natl. Petro-
leum News, 33: 26: R201 (1941).

16. ENstow, Linn H. The Continuous
Stability Indicator. W.W. & Sew.,
86: 107 (1939).

11.

piping, is not a normal household ex-
pense, water conditioning will progress
at an accelerated rate.

The author does not intend to imply
by the above that water works men
have not been interested in, and tried
to do something about, this problem.
The ever-increasing list of municipali-
ties deliberately producing calcium car-
bonate scale to protect piping systems
is evidence to the contrary. The Army,
Navy and industry have moved ahead
of municipal water supplies in the con-
trol of scale and corrosion simply be-
cause they had to do so in order to
maintain constant operation at a rea-

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sonable operating figure. The post
engineer of an army post is superin-
tendent of building maintenance, as
_ well as superintendent of water. Many

post engineers learned during 1941 and
early 1942 that careful attention to the
mineral content of water and the in-
stallation of corrosion-resistive ma-
terials (if they had been available)
would have obviated many operating
headaches and saved the government
money.

Examples of the Army’s losses due
to scale or corrosion in hot water tanks,
heaters and piping have been covered
by Kessler, Sundstrom and Tomek
(1) and Hanlon, Steffen, Rohlich and
Kessler (2). The latter paper and a
recent one by Hanlon and Newton (3)
_ describe the Army’s attack on this prob-
lem. Any discussion here of Army

experiences would be a repetition of
-much of the material in these papers.
In the beginning, the Army consid-
ered scale its principal problem. To
conserve critical materials and save
time, softening plants had been omitted
from many posts where everyone recog-
nized softening should have been pro-
vided. The 180°F. required at mess
hall water outlets to assure dish steri-
_ lization greatly accelerated the deposi-
tion of scale, and trouble soon de-
veloped with waters hitherto consid-

_ ered completely satisfactory.
> The Truax Field experiments, which
| have been covered thoroughly in the
papers mentioned above, indicated scale
Ag could be controlled economically by the
addition of small quantities of poly-
phosphates (septaphosphate or sodium
_ hexametaphosphate). They also in-
_ dicated that the prevention of scale
_ might produce corrosion, particularly
if the water was high in dissolved oxy-
- gen. They further indicated, however,
= the same materials might retard

jou RNAL—-AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION

Vol.

corrosion in these waters to such an ey.
tent that it would not be a problem
Subsequent experiences have borne oy
these conclusions, and the Army hy
satisfactorily controlled scale and coy.
rosion at approximately 200 posts b
the addition of small quantities (2 tos
ppm. ) of polyphosphates.

It is unfortunate that time, mone)
and materials did not permit the Arm
to carry out another experiment com.
parable to the Truax Field work on th
extremely soft waters. Most of they
waters are very corrosive at the highe
temperatures, and experiences after ;
few months’ operation indicated thy
corrosion would become a problem a
least as great as the scale problem.

Plant scale work on many posts with
numerous chemicals and combination:
of chemicals has resulted in varied find.
ings. The low doses of polyphosphate
which work well in the control of scak
in the hard waters, and in the inhibi.
tion of corrosion which may resul
when the deposition of scale is pre
vented in many of these waters, dif
not give satisfactory results in the higt
temperature (180°-200°F.) hot water
lines where the water was soft an
corrosive. Carefully controlled exper
ments at Camp Shanks, N.Y., unde
the direction of the American Iron ant
Steel Institute demonstrated that 1)
ppm. sodium hexametaphosphate gave
satisfactory inhibition of corrosion it
standard galvanized steel pipe carrying
water at a temperature of 180°T.
These experiments also indicated dose
of 2 ppm. sodium hexametaphosphatt
gave reasonable inhibition of corrosior
in the 140°-150°F. water lines. Poly:

phosphates in the amount of about I

ppm. have been reported as _ giving
satisfactory control of corrosion at 4
few far western posts served by hight

corrosive waters.

July 1

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July 1946 CORROSION

Sodium silicate, or sodium silicate
together with lime, soda ash or a poly-
phosphate, has been used on many of
the corrosive water posts. Original
sodium silicate doses were usually in
the neighborhood of 8 ppm. Experi-
ences during the latter part of 1944
and in 1945 show a considerably higher
dosage of silicate is required if corro-
sion is to be effectively inhibited. It
appears that a dosage sufficient to pro-
duce in the neighborhood of 12 to 15
ppm. SiO, is indicated, at least until
an initial coating has been given
throughout the piping system. Some
calcium appears necessary in order to
combine with the colloidal silicate to
form a coating. Some time may elapse
between the initial application of sili-
cate and the observation of a silicate
coating in remote sections of the dis-
tribution system.

Results at Camp Edwards and Camp
Myles Standish, Mass., are good ex-
amples of the value of the higher silica
content. At Camp Edwards, which has
a water with 3 ppm. natural silica, good
results have been obtained by the addi-
tion of 20 to 30 ppm. lime and 26 ppm.
of sodium silicate (28 per cent SiO.,).
Comparable results have been obtained
at Camp Myles Standish, which has
water with 13 ppm. silica, by merely
adding 20 to 30 ppm. lime. This ap-
pears to indicate that the silicate dose
may be reduced by an amount equal to
the natural silica content, but more in-
formation on this point is needed.
Baer Field, Ind., has obtained good re-
sults on a partially zeolite-softened wa-
ter by using 20 ppm. sodium hydroxide
(to raise the pH to 8.0) and 20 ppm.
sodium silicate.

The effect of silica on old pipes
which are heavily tuberculated is not
definitely known. Observation of some
pipe specimens has shown silicate coat-

CONTROL — 825

ings"even on tubercles but some of the

tubercles usually appear to be remain- —
ing active. Investigation of the soften- _
ing and removal of tubercles by poly- |

phosphate treatment and the introduc- st

tion of silicate treatment after the tu-—

bercles have been removed might prove |

enlightening.

Lime alone, or lime in combination
with 2 or 3 ppm. of the polyphosphates,
has been satisfactorily employed at a

number of posts having slightly or |

moderately corrosive waters. How-
ever, severe pitting has
within 3 years at other posts attempt-
ing to produce a stabilized water by the
use of lime alone. The practice of con-
trol measures advocated by Powell (4)
might have obviated this trouble. |

Small doses of polyphosphates are

developed

effective in controlling scale and in- ©

hibiting corrosion which may result >
when deposition of scale is prevented.
Properly controlled lime, high doses of

polyphosphates or sodium silicate will
greatly mitigate corrosion and prolong ©

the life of ferrous metals exposed to

the action of soft corrosive water. Bae

References

1. Kesster, L. H., Sunpstrom, V.
Tome_EK, A. O.
in Army Training Centers.
W.A., 35: 1039 (1943).

2. HANLON, R. T., STEFFEN, A. J., RoHLICH,
G. A. & Kesster, L. H. Scale and Cor-
rosion Control in Potable Water Sup-
plies at U.S. Army Posts. Ind. Eng.
Chem., 37: 724 (1945).

3. HANLON, R. T. & Newron, D.

Water Supply Practice
Jour. A.W.

Scale and

Corrosion Prevention by Chemical Con- _
ditioning of Water.
31 (1946).

4. Powett, SHEPPARD T., Bacon, H. E. «
Lit, J. R. Corrosion Prevention by —
Controlled Calcium

Pub. Wks., 77: 4:

Carbonate Scale.

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engineers of the St. Louis Wa-
ter Division have developed a plan
for modernization of the St. Louis wa-
ter works plant that will provide a
safer supply, more economical opera-
tion and better service. The plan pro-
vides for the abandonment of certain
existing water works facilities, revision
of the distribution system, and mod-
ernization of the Chain of Rocks plant
so that this plant alone would supply
the entire city for the next 25 years.

Present Water Supply System

The present water supply for the
city of St. Louis is obtained from two
sources, and the average consumption
is about 150 mgd. About one-third of
this amount is taken from the Missouri
River and purified at Howard Bend
Station. The remaining two-thirds is
obtained from the Mississippi River
and processed at the Chain of Rocks
Station. The combined purification
capacity of these plants as designed was
240 mgd., but the Chain of Rocks plant
alone will be able to purify this amount
of water as soon as revisions now being
designed are built. The past and prob-
able future consumption. figures are
shown in Fig. 1.

The general layout of the existing
water works system is shown in plan
by Fig. 2. This diagram shows the
two levels into which the distribution
system is divided.

By Thomas J. Skinker and E. E. Easterday
St. Louis, Mo.

3 Engr., Design and Constr., St. Louis, Mo.
Presented on May 7, 1946, at the Annual Conference, St. Louis, Mo.

Water Comr.,

The low-level distribution on which
Compton Hill Reservoir is floating
serves nearly all parts of the city be
tween el. 0 and 100, and the high-level

distribution .on which Stacy Park
Reservoir is floating serves the higher
parts which lie between el. 100 and 2)
(relative to the St. Louis Directrix,
which is 413.536 ft. above mean sea
level).

Compton Hill Reservoir, with a ca-
pacity of 85 mil.gal., has its overflow
at el. 186, which is 86 ft. above the
highest area served, while Stacy Park
Reservoir with a capacity of 100 mil.
gal. has its overflow at el. 317, which is
117 ft. above the highest area served,

High-level distribution is supplied by
water produced at both the Howard
Bend and Chain of Rocks plants. All
the water produced at Howard Bend—
about 50 mgd.—is pumped direct to
Stacy Park Reservoir at a uniform rate
and flows from there to the city by
gravity. The balance of the 75 mgd.
required for high-level distribution, or
25 mgd., is produced by the Chain of
Rocks plant and pumped by the dis-

tributive service pumps at Baden.

The entire low-level distribution re-
quirement of about 75 mgd. is purified
at the Chain of Rocks and pumped by
the distributive service pumps at Bis-
sell’s Point Station.

At present, all water purified at the
Chain of Rocks flows by gravity

Million Gallons per Day

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PLANNED IMPROVEMENTS

July 1946
Capacity of Chain of Rocks
Purification Plant verage Day for the
240 mgd. Maximum 6-Day Period

Day for the aS Average Day for the

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Fic. 1. Past and Probable Future Consumption of St. Louis 7

through conduits to the distributive
service pumping stations at Baden and
Bissell’s Point. At Baden there is a
20-mil.gal., covered, clear water reser-
voir and at Bissell’s Point a 54-mil.gal.,
covered, clear water reservoir.

No reconstruction work is planned
for the 16-year-old Howard Bend
Plant, which is located on the Missouri
River about 16 miles west of the city.
This plant is now a modern steam
plant with a purification capacity of
80 mgd. The plant is a self-contained
unit as all water taken from the Mis-
souri River is purified and pumped at
this one location. The primary serv-
ice pumping capacity is 240 mgd. and
the distributive service pumping ca-
pacity is 120 mgd.

The Chain of Rocks plant is the one
that offers many opportunities for im-
provement. It is located on the Mis-
sissippi River in the north part of the
city, and all facilities at the Chain of
Rocks, Baden and Bissell’s Point are
considered units of the same plant.
The primary service pumps and puri-
fication system are located at the Chain

of Rocks and the distributive service _
pumps are at Baden and Bissell’s Point
stations, which are 4 and 7? miles, re- a o
spectively, south of the Chain of Rocks.
Water flows by gravity from the
purification plant at the Chain of Rocks __
through an 11-ft. masonry conduit and |
a 7-ft. steel conduit to a 20-mil.gal., —
covered, clear water storage reservoir
at Baden Station. From there it flows |
through a 9-ft. masonry conduit anda
64-ft. reinforced concrete conduit toa
54-mil.gal., covered, clear water stor- _
age reservoir at Bissell’s Point. y
The primary service pumps at the |
Chain of Rocks consist of four vertical, _
compound, steam-engine-driven plunger
pumps and three steam-turbine-driven
centrifugal pumps. The four plunger
pumps and two of the three centrifugal
pumps have a capacity of 35 mgd. each,
and the third centrifugal pump has a |
capacity of 110 mgd. The combined —
capacity is 320 mgd. —
The distributive service pumps 7

Baden Station consist of six vertical,
compound, steam-engine-driven plunger
pumps of 80-mgd. combined capacity. _

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July 1940

The distributive service pumps at
Bissell’s Point Station
six vertical, compound, steam-engine-
driven plunger pumps and one steam-
turbine-driven centrifugal pump, each
with a capacity of 20 mgd., or a total
capacity of 140 mgd.

All the pumping facilities for the
Chain of Rocks plant are old and scat-
tered, and they should be replaced with
modern equipment located at the Chain
of Rocks purification plant. The old
masonry conduit through which water
flows by gravity from the purification
plant at the Chain of Rocks to Baden
and Bissell’s Point pumping stations
is obsolete and provides a source of
possible contamination for the entire
pure water supply from this station.

The steam boilers at the Chain of
Rocks are over 50 years old, and the
four plunger pumps are the same age.
Two of the three centrifugal pumps are
33 years old, obsolete and worn-out.
The third one, which is 27 years old,
could be overhauled as a steam-driven
pump, but if motor-driven pumps are
used, it should be replaced with mod-
ern and more efficient equipment.

The pumps in the Baden Station are
47 years old and the steam boilers are
27 years old. This station now sup-
plies a part of the high-level distribu-
tion district which must be partially
shut off from Stacy Park Reservoir
due to the inability of the pumps to
operate against the total head of this
reservoir.

Bissell’s Point Station is made up of
one boiler plant that furnishes steam
for two pump houses. The boilers are
17 years old and the pumps vary in age
from 20 to 41 years.

The brick masonry conduit from the
Chain of Rocks to Baden and Bissell’s
Point Stations was completed over 50
years ago. Since, at that time, the only

PLANNED IMPROVEMENTS

consist of

829

treatment the raw river water received
was plain sedimentation, little or no
consideration was given to the possi-
bility of ground water infiltration or
even the entrance of raw river water.
Where this conduit crossed creeks,
overflow openings were built in the
sides, through which raw river water
could have entered during high river
stages. At that time, this would not
have been considered serious, but since
then, the standards of water purifica-
tion and the protection of a pure water
supply against contamination have ad-
vanced to the extent that all possible
sources of pollution must be eliminated.

The overflow openings and several
leaks have been sealed but some leaks
still exist that would make infiltration
inevitable under certain conditions.
All creeks are now sewers, and some
of them cross under the conduits as
open channels. During high river
stages, when this highly contaminated
water is backed up on the sides of the
conduits, the water level in the con-
duits and clear water basins must be
kept at a higher elevation than the
creeks to prevent infiltration. On
several occasions during high river
stages this margin of safety has been
reduced to less than 1 ft., which is too
close for safety. It is possible for
back water to top the conduits and
cause infiltration.

Most complaints of poor service are
received from consumers on low-level
distribution where the services are old,
corroded or small, and where the street
elevation of the area is above 90 ft.

As the water system now stands,
the high-level distribution requirements
are as great as the low-level distribu-
tion requirements, and the only pump-
ing station that can operate against the
full head of Stacy Park Reservoir is
Howard Bend Station, which is too

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small to supply the total high-level
needs. Therefore all water for low-
level distribution and part of the high-
level distribution requirements must be
produced at the Chain of Rocks plant.

July 1946

Proposed Improvements

In order to provide for more eco-
nomical operation and a safer supply
from the Chain of Rocks plant, it is
proposed to transfer all distributive
service pumping from Baden and Bis-
sell’s Point to the Chain of Rocks and
replace the old gravity flow masonry
conduits with a pressure tunnel or

PLANNED IMPROVEMENTS

distributive pumping station, a clear
water basin to take the fluctuation be-
tween the filter plant and the distribu-
tive service pumps, a pressure tunnel
or pressure conduit from the distribu-
tive service pumping station to the dis-
tribution mains at Baden and Bissell’s
Point, rehabilitation of the purification
plant for a capacity of 240 mgd., re-
construction of the head house to in-

clude the chemical laboratory, and re- _

arrangement of railway tracks.

Improvements for the distribution

system will include a new low-level
storage reservoir, new pressure con- a

duits to connect the new reservoir to
the present low-level mains and the
pressure conduit from the new Chain _
of Rocks pumping station, a pressure

pressure surface conduits from the new
pumping station at the Chain of Rocks
to the distribution mains at both Baden

and Bissell’s Point.

Better service would be provided by
replacing Compton Hill Reservoir with
a new low-level distribution reservoir
about 40 ft. higher than Compton Hill
Reservoir. This would not only pro-
vide higher pressure in the present
low-level district, but would make it
possible to enlarge the district enough
to increase its consumption from about
50 to 75 per cent of the total city con-
sumption, thereby reducing the high-
level consumption requirements from
50 to 25 per cent of the total. This re-
duction in high-level consumption
would make it possible for Howard
Bend Plant to supply the total high-
level requirements and make two-level
pumping from the Chain of Rocks plant
unnecessary.

Figure 3 shows the proposed water
works system in plan, and Figs. 4 and
5 show the present and the proposed
water works systems in elevation. Fig-
ure 6 shows the location of proposed
improvements at the Chain of Rocks.

Improvements for the Chain of
Rocks plant include a power plant, pri-
Mary service pumping equipment, a

conduit from the new low-level reser-
voir to the present high-level distribu- _

tion mains, and a booster pumping sta- |

tion to pump water for high-level dis- “i "

tribution from the new low-level reser-
voir.

It is proposed to generate electric —

power at the Chain of Rocks to oper-

ate electric motor-driven primary and ©
This

distributive service pumps.
method of pumping the quantity of ©

water produced at this plant was found =

to be more efficient and reliable than

any other method, and the cost of all _

equipment required was found to be
less than for any other method.

The requirements of the proposed _

specifications for the power plant are:

1. Space for four complete generat-

ing units,

electric generator.

2. The installation of three genera-
ting units large enough so that only two
need be operated at any one time, ex-

cept for short periods of maximum ©

consumption.
3. Fueling with pulverized con

each unit to consist of a
steam boiler and steam-turbine-driven =|

| 4, Generation of steam at 600 psi.

and 775°F.

5. The use of steam turbines for the

generators with three-point extraction.
6. Generation of power at 6,900 v.
Enough coal would be provided in

_ the bunkers and reclaim storage, where
: it could be obtained for use by the
regular operating crew, to supply the
power plant for two weeks. <Addi-
tional coal would be provided in perma-
nent storage near the plant to operate
the power plant for six months.

Both primary and distributive serv-
ice pumps would be constant-speed,
electric-motor-driven, centrifugal
pumps. The primary service pumps
would be installed in the present pump
pits replacing the old steam pumps now
in operation, and the distributive serv-
ice pumps would be installed in a new
pump pit under the same roof with the
electric generating units. For each pri-
mary and distributive service, there
would be four pumps with a capacity
of 40 mgd. and four with a capacity of
50 mgd.

The new 20-mil.gal. clear water basin
is planned so that it can be built with-
out interfering with present plant oper-
ation. Filtered water may be circu-
lated through this basin or bypassed
directly to the pumping station.

The basin will be covered, with the
top at an elevation equal to or above
the maximum elevation of the water
on the filters so that it cannot ‘over-
flow. This arrangement will make pos-
sible operation of the filter plant auto-
matically at a rate equal to the rate of
pumping at the distributive service sta-
tion, and at the same time save several
feet of pumping head that would be
lost if the present system of operating
the filter plant were continued. Other
features of the clear water basin de-
sign include walls that. will ‘defy con-

JOURNAL—AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION

Vol. 38

tamination from either ground water
or back water from the river.

The present chemical laboratory jg
located in a small isolated building.
Both the building and the laboratory
equipment which it houses are in need
of extensive repairs. This old labora.
tory must be reconstructed to be jn
step with other improvements being de-
signed for the Chain of Rocks. It can
be moved to the head house at the filter
plant where there is plenty of room;
this is a better place for it than the
present location because it will give the
chemists an opportunity to supervise
this important unit of the purification
system directly.

Chain of Rocks Purification Plant

A few years ago plans for the pri-
mary sedimentation basins at the Chain
of Rocks were revised to include pre-
sedimentation, primary coagulation,
and a more uniform flow through all
sedimentation basins. Much of this
work was done before the war and at
present the presedimentation basin and
primary coagulation chamber are in
service.

Work yet to be done includes: (1)
construction of filling chambers in the
presedimentation basin and _ the first
primary sedimentation basin, (2) ex
tension of the bypass conduit from
Basin No. 2 to Basin No. 5, (3) con
struction of a collecting chamber and
carbon dioxide chamber in Basin No.
6, (4) reconstruction of division walls
between Basin Nos. 2 to 6 to insure
more uniform flow across the basins,
and (5) raising the exterior walls of
these basins.

At present, Basin Nos. 7, 7§ and 8
are being used for secondary coagula-
tion and sedimentation. Basin No. 7
is equipped with temporary wood baf-
fles and serves as a_ coagulation

July.

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chamber, and Basin Nos. 7 and 8 serve
for sedimentation with water entering
the filter plant at both the north and
south ends.

Basin No. 9 was a primary sedimen-
tation basin until about 5 years ago.
Since that time it has not been in use.
It is now proposed to include it in the
secondary group.

Construction work required to re-
vise Basin Nos. 7, 73, 8 and 9 for
secondary coagulation and sedimenta-
tion includes a coagulation chamber in
Basin No. 9 with a connection to the
primary drawing conduit, a bypass con-
duit from the coagulation chamber to
Basin No. 7, reconstruction of the di-
vision wall between Basin Nos. 8 and 9
to serve as a stilling baffle, construc-
tion of stop plank openings through
the north and south walls of Basin No.
7}, a collecting conduit in Basin No.
7, and an additional entrance to the
center of the plant from Basin No. 7.

The proposed method of operation
for the revised secondary basins is in-
dicated by arrows on Fig. 6. This
method provides for that portion of
Basin No. 9 not occupied by the co-
agulation chamber to serve as a stilling
chamber. This practice will be per-
missible because of the large settling
capacity provided in Basin Nos. 7 and
8, but should better settling ever be
desired in Basin No. 9 it can be accom-
plished by the construction of a stilling
chamber along the south wall of the
secondary coagulation chamber.

Provision has been made for drain-
ing the secondary coagulation chamber,
or either of the sedimentation basins,
for cleaning or repairs without risking
failure of the old division walls between
the basins which cannot safely with-
stand a full head of water.

The walls of the secondary coagula-
tion chamber and the bypass conduit

will be designed and built to withstand
safely a full head of water, so that these |
structures can remain in service when —

the basins in which they are built are
empty.

The division walls between Basin
Nos. 7, 74, 8 and 9 can safely with-
stand an unbalanced head equal to one
half the depth of the basins; therefore
the openings in the division wall be-

tween Basin Nos. 8 and 9 required to _

rebuild it as a stilling baffle will extend
only one-half the depth of the basins

and the stop plank openings in the —

other division walls will likewise ex-
tend down only one-half the basin
depth. Then any basin can be safely
drained by leaving the stop planks out
of the openings in the division walls
separating it from the adjacent basins.

Improvements described above for _

the primary and secondary coagulation
and sedimentation basins will insure
water conditioned in a manner that
will make possible economical opera-
tion of the filter plant at a capacity of
240 mgd.

Another unit of the Chain of Rocks
purification plant that needs overhaul-
ing is the coagulant house, where the
old method of unloading bulk lime and
other chemicals by hand is still being
practiced. This difficult method is
slow and expensive and should be
abolished.

Plans are now being prepared for
a better method of unloading and con-
veying purification chemicals and for
new lime slaking tanks at a higher
elevation than the old tanks, so that
the milk of lime will not have to be
pumped to the point of application.

If Baden and Bissell’s Point Sta-
tions are abandoned, no railway serv-
ice will be required at these stations;
therefore it will be possible to shorten
the water works railway. This can be

1. 38 AN NEI ROVEM 833
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JOURNAL—AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION July
c
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2° NTAT!
Jing Bat
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$38
58 to Filt
of
Primary Drawing Conduit °
Filling Chamber
PRIMARY & [yENTATIO
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Railway 2 3 3
Storage Sheds House s
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Fic. 6. mf Rocks
done by connecting with the Burling- surface conduit safe at this location by§ sing!
ton Railway about 3 miles south of removing more earth from the hill andf twic
the Chain of Rocks, thereby reducing _ by special conduit construction. duit
the length of the Chain of Rocks rail- Tunnel construction would consist} be t

way from about 8 to 3 miles.

A pressure tunnel is being consid-
ered from the Chain of Rocks distribu-
tive service pumping station to the
Baden and Bissell’s Point mains be-
cause a landslide broke both of the
present conduits in 1927 about 14
miles south of the Chain of Rocks filter
plant. Also, a tunnel is a more perma-
nent structure, and can be built and
put in service without interfering in
any way with the operation of any ex-
isting water works facilities.

After the landslide occurred, an at-
tempt was made to stabilize the conduit
right-of-way by removing earth from
the hill alongside the conduits and plac-
ing it on the low ground between the
conduits and the river. No ground
movement has been noted since that
time, and it may be possible to make a

of a bore through solid limestone rock,
lined with a welded steel tube. The
annular space between the steel tube
and the tunnel bore would be filled
with concrete and the interior of the
steel tube lined with either cement-
mortar or pipe enamel.

Pressure conduit construction near
the ground surface would consist of a
welded steel pipe encased in concrete
and lined with cement-mortar or pipe
enamel. The concrete encasement
would protect the steel pipe from de-
terioration and from distortion due to
backfill and traffic on any road that
might be built on the right-of-way
over the conduit.

A pressure conduit near the ground
surface and a pressure tunnel are now
being checked for the desired safety
against interruption of service. A

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ol. 3H July 1946 PLANNED IMPROVEMENTS
(Proposed),
Conduit Temporary Coagulation Chamber
) Collecting >!
ENTATION BASINS 7 Conduit \
— |} Bring Battie StopPlank—> (Proposed) \
T
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<= Cc
Basin 3 2
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a | | (Proposed) \ s
4 A | 4 Railway Trac
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@
++

ocks Station

single pressure tunnel will cost about
twice as much as a single pressure con-
duit near the ground surface but may
be the best in the long run if safety
against landslides, floods, washouts,
sabotage, bombing, etc., are all con-
sidered.

In order to provide better service in
about half of the city, and to reduce
the size of the present high-level dis-
tribution district to where Howard
Bend Station would be able to supply
the total demand and make one pres-
sure distributive service pumping pos-
sible at the new Chain of Rocks pump-
ing station, a new low-level storage
reservoir has been designed to float on
an enlarged low-level distribution dis-
trict at an elevation 40 ft. higher than
the present Compton Hill Reservoir.
This proposed new storage reservoir
will also make it possible to re-estab-
lish the division line between the pres-
ent high- and low-level distribution
districts in a manner that will insure a

minimum pressure as high as 40 psi.
anywhere in the city.

This new low-level reservoir would —
be located on high ground in Sublette _
Park beyond the center of the low-
level distribution area and would be
connected by large supply mains to all iy
large low-level mains and to the new ©
pressure conduit from the new Chain of =|
Rocks pumping station. This reser-
voir would also be connected to all
large high-level distribution mains by
a large pressure conduit. _

A booster pumping station has also
been designed to pump water from the
new low level reservoir into the high- __
level district. It would be large enough
to pump all water produced at the
Chain of Rocks plant in excess of
the low-level distribution requirements, =
thereby making it possible to realize
the full 240-mgd. capacity of the Chain
of Rocks plant. It would also make it —
possible to supply high-level distribu- —
tion from either or both plants. cs

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A higher reservoir floating on low-
level distribution would put Compton
Hill Reservoir out of service; there-
fore this 85-mil.gal. reservoir would
be kept full and the 85 mil.gal. made
available for use during periods of peak
consumption or during any emergency
by a booster pumping station designed
to pump the contents for improved

JOURNAL—-AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION

low-level distribution,

The estimated cost of modernizing
the Chain of Rocks plant and rearrang-
ing the distribution system for better
service and more reliable operation,
if a single pressure tunnel is used from
the Chain of Rocks plant, is $18,240,-
000. If a single pressure conduit near
the ground surface is used, this esti-
mated cost would be reduced by about
$3,000,000. This cost is broken down
in Table 1.

Method of Operation

If the Chain of Rocks plant is mod-
ernized as proposed, St. Louis would
then have two self-contained water
works plants, each capable of supply-
ing water for both high- and low-level
distribution. The Howard Bend plant
would normally supply water for only
high-level distribution and the Chain
of Rocks plant would normally supply
water for only low-level distribution.
The proposed booster station, near the
storage reservoir and floating on the
low-level distribution district, could be
used to pump water for high-level dis-
tribution, and water from the high-
level storage reservoir could be used to
augment the supply in the low-level
storage reservoir simply by the open-
ing of a valve.

There are several ways that these
two plants could be operated, but the
method adopted should be the one

Vol. 38

Estimated Cost of Proposed Improvements
for the St. Louis Water Department

Power plant and distributive ser-
vice pumping station at Chain
of Rocks $ 2,700,000

Clear water basin at Chain of

Rocks 865,000
Coal storage basin 140,000
Primary service pumping equip-

ment 300,000
Pressure tunnel from Chain of

Rocks to distribution system 6,220,000
Low-level distribution storage res-

ervoir 1,770,000
High-level distributive service

booster pumping station 150,000
Compton Hill Reservoir booster

pumping station 25,000
Water supply mains 4,805,000
Rebuilding Chain of Rocks puri-

fication plant 780,000
Rebuilding Chain of Rocks co-

agulant house 140,000
New chemical laboratory for

Chain of Rocks 75,000
Revision of Chain of Rocks rail-

way 120,000
Miscellaneous structures __ 150,000

TotaL Cost $18,240,000

capable of supplying the total require-
ments of the city with a reasonable
margin of safety at the most eco-
nomical cost.

Continuous operation of both the
Howard Bend and Chain of Rocks
plants would provide maximum relia-
bility of service but would also be the
most expensive way that the water
works could be operated. The other
extreme would be to shut down How-
ard Bend plant completely and _ sup-
ply the entire city from the Chain of
Rocks plant. This method of opera-
tion would be the most economical but
would provide the least amount of in-
surance against interrupted service.
The method of operation to be adopted
might be a compromise between these
two extremes.

mod

Pres
Cont
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2188 88 88 & S

—

July 1940
TABLE 2
Estimated Cost of Operating Water Works
in 1950
Estimated
Annual Saving
Operation Plan Cost of Over

Operation Present

a Plant
Present plant $1,583,000

Continuous operation of
Howard Bend and
modernized Chain of
Rocks plant 1,213,000 $370,000

Continuous operation of
booster pumping sta-
tion and modernized a. oJ
Chain of Rocks plant 1,016,000 567,000
The estimated costs in 1950 of oper-

ating the present water works and the
modernized water works by the two

PLANNED IMPROVEMENTS

extreme methods are listed in Table
Water works funds now available
for postwar construction amount to
$18,640,000. Of this amount, $11,- _
140,000 is cash and $7,500,000 is wa-
ter works bonds that were authorized _
by the voters of St. Louis on Nov. 7, —
1944,
The improvement plan, along with |
several alternate plans, is now being _
subjected to independent engineering _
and economic analysis, as requested by
the Water System Committee of the
Citizens Committee for Postwar Im- _
provements. As soon as this or some _
alternate plan has been approved, the
water department is prepared to com- _
plete the final design and to start con-
struction whenever conditions are

By G. B. Schunke
= Asst. Supt., Water Dept., Seattle, Wash.
Presented on May 8, 1946, at the Annual Conference, St. Louis, Mo.

T might be more appropriate to label to the billing office is usually deemed to
this discussion “Modern Metered be a thoroughly satisfactory method of
Water Schedules,” for the pattern of Charging for water supply and Sewage
rate schedules now in general use pro- disposal, and when complaints increase jn
: =. for the sale of water on a quan- volume and vigor it seems advisable to

adjust rates il <
titative basis, with a progressive reduc- J downward until a normal
state of passive payments is achieved.

F = in cost to the customer in direct Conversely, when complaints are note.
ratio to the amount of water con- worthy by their absence, elevation of unit
_ sumed. charges is the order of the day. By such
_ In the November 1945 issue of the a delicate system of checks and balances
-JournaL, Arthur W. Consoer states rate-making is exceptionally free from
this principle very clearly inhisadmira- emotionalism and mathematics.

able paper on “Modern Rate Schedules” The author then proceeds to outline
(1). The opening paragraph of that 4 «;eadiness-to-serve charge” and a
paper is so apt as a word picture of the consumption rate schedule based on

development of metered water rate five schedules or blocks as shown by
schedules and the difficulties in which

management finds itself at this time

that it bears repeating: TABLE 1
Se Consumption Charges Recommended for
Many managers of municipal water de- City of 50,000 Population
partments and sewage disposal depart- BI sie
4 ock Limits Rate per
ments are now restive about their rate Block No. in 100 cu.ft. 100 cu.ft.
schedules. Investigation of the origins 1 First 50 14¢
of such schedules for the furnishing of 2 Next 450 12¢
water and treatment of sewer and trade a Next 500 10¢
wastes reveals that most of them were | 4 Next 500 8¢
5 Over 1,500 6¢

hurriedly established by plagiarizing from
rate tables in nearby cities or villages. : . =
Others have been developed by trial and Wisconsin Decision on Water Rates
error from an obscure beginning. In most In the same issue of the JouRNAL is
cases a rate schedule which produces the decision of the Public Service Com-
enough revenue to operate the system and mission of Wisconsin in the case of the
pay interest and amortization on out- it f M h bli ter
standing bonds is considered acceptable. SS ee
utility for revision of water rates (2).

In other instances the test of acceptability a 2
seems to hinge on customer acquiescence. The decision redefines the principles

In these latter situations a rate schedule underlying water rates and reads in
which does not bring a flood of complaints __ part as follows:

water
will al
meet |
tion
supply
ficatio
yf an
For th
ties al
the mi
ice th
Conse
expen
nature
do no
pumpe
propo!
ing a
vary ¢
yutput

The
by a:
mum
ing 4
count
me
charge

Consum

7 Metered Water Rate Schedules
Fi
No
Ne
Ne
Ne
Ne
On
Mini
| Wh
charge
of wa
a4 Seattl
4 gradu
4 in Tal

d to
1 of
vage
e in
e to
"mal
ved,
unit
such
nces
rom

line
la
on
by

A water utility must be prepared at all
jimes to furnish to all of its customers
an adequate supply of pure and palatable
water at a proper pressure so that water
will always be available for the user. To
meet such requirements entails the erec-
ion of a plant consisting of source of
supply facilities, pumping, storage, puri-
fcation equipment, mains and hydrants
of ample capacity, meters and services.
For the most part, the extent of the facili-
ties above enumerated is based more upon
the maximum potential demand for serv-
ice than on the volume of water used.
Consequently, a large proportion of the
expenses associated therewith are in the
nature of fixed and constant costs which
do not vary with the amount of water
pumped or sold. A relatively smaller
proportion of the expenses, such as pump-

vary directly with the volume of water
yutput.

The decision is then supplemented
by a schedule of general service mini-
mum (ready-to-serve) charges, allow-
ing 400 cu.ft. per month to each ac-
count and graduated according to size
f meter, and graduated consumption
harges as shown in Table 2.

TABLE 2
Menasha, Wis., Consumption Charges

Consumption—gal. per month Rate per 1,000 gal.

First 3,000 Minimum bill
Next 15,000 25¢
Next 182,000
Next 250,000
Next 550,000
Next 5,000,000
ver 6,000,000

Minimum Charges

Whether or not the ready-to-serve
charge shall include a minimum amount
of water is a matter of policy. In

Seattle, the ready-to-serve charge is
graduated according to the schedule

in Table 3.

ing and purification expenses, tend to -

TABLE 3
Seattle, Wash., Consumption Charges
Size of Service* Quantity Used

Minimum Charges

in. cu.ft.
300 $0.50
1} 1,200 1.35
2 2,000
4 4,900 4650
6 :

*Services larger than 6-in. pay the 6-in.

minimum.

There is general agreement as to the
principles involved in the matter of
ready-to-serve (demand) charge. It
is the consumption charge and the
method in which it is allocated that will
be discussed at this time.

In Table 1, there is a variation from
14¢ per 100 cu.ft. down to 6¢ per 100
cu.ft., and in Table 2 (Menasha) the
range is from 183¢ per 100 cu.ft. to 3¢
per 100 cu.ft.

Metered water rate schedules are
presumed to be established to provide
for cost of operation, maintenance, fixed
charges (interest on the public debt)
and accrued depreciation. In addition,
they should provide, for private utili-
ties, a reasonable return on invested
capital and, for municipal utilities, a
reasonable amount for new construc- |
tion. There is a certain sum of money _
required. Who is to pay it, and in |
what proportion is it to be allocated to
the several categories of users? There
can be no uniformity of rates as such,
because each system has its local condi- —
tions to meet, its local load to be dis- __
tributed. Nor can a set of principles —
be established that would operate
equally with either privately owned or |
municipally owned systems.

All privately owned water systems
are regulated by state law and are burd-
ened with state and federal taxation. —
Some public utilities are state regu-

tes
, is
m-
the
ter
2).
les

Vol. 38

lated, but the major portion are not so load of autos from Detroit to Seattle
supervised ; and all publicly owned utili- is the same as that for 1,000 carloads
ties are exempt from all federal taxa- shipped at one time. Secret rebates
tion and as a rule from state taxation. have long since been abolished by
This is only part of the picture. _ statute.
Capital required for municipal exten- 4. Local trolley or bus system: Its
sions is tax-exempt, whereas that of services are offered on equal terms to
private utilities is subject to federal all.
taxation, which puts them in competi- These rates have the sanction of
tion for private capital. law and usage, and yet the water utility
This tax-exemption feature has be- charges one rate for a small quantity
come so important that utilities with a and perhaps only half or a quarter of
sustained record of successful opera- the rate for large quantities.
- tion now find themselves in the en- Customs and usage, like habits, are
_ viable position of being able to secure strange things to overcome. In sell-
4 capital for relatively long periods at a ing water on a sliding scale, one en-
_ lower rate than even the federal gov- counters the fact that it is the large
ernment is required to pay, because user who makes larger facilities neces-
federal borrowings are not tax exempt. sary; yet instead of making him defer
This inquiry, then, can only be ad- the additional expense required to sup-
dressed to those municipal utilities ply him with proper facilities, water
which are masters of their own affairs, companies immediately proceed to
_ and which, in the author’s belief, still grant him special privileges. Is not
represent the far larger proportion of the service rendered in furnishing 1,-
_ water users in the United States. The 000,000 cu.ft. of water relatively as
_ only tenable theory of municipal own- great as furnishing 1,000 cu.ft.? Is it
ership is the greatest good to the great- only a commodity, or a service as well,
est number. If that premise fails, there that is being rendered?

.. is no valid justification for it. The arguments for a low rate on
; , large volume run something like this:
Volumetric Basis for Water Rates If a utility department is to expand

Why is it that the volumetric basis its sales and gain the benefit of result-
for selling water, light and gas is not. ing economies in operation, large cus-
followed in some other purely monop- tomers must be given lower rates than
olistic enterprises? Consider the fol- small ones, otherwise large consumers
lowing examples: will be lost. Or, low industrial rates

1. U.S. Post Office: The purchase of are an inducement to industries seek-
a 3¢ stamp—if a million were bought ing new locations, and the location of
the same unit price would prevail. such industries may prove of great

2. Telephone and telegraph systems: benefit to a group of higher-rate do-
Whether one wire or a thousand are mestic consumers.
sent at the same time, the same unit ’
price prevails for the same destination Fallacy of Variable-Rate Scales
for the same volume of words. The author shall proceed to prove

3. Railroads: The rule seems to be that this line of reasoning has been
that within the limits of definite com- overworked and is really a subsidy in
modity rates, the unit rate for one car- disguise. The important fact is whether

[ot
Cit)
Tot
Toté

or n
the

of 4
indu
Thre
than
from
They
They
cu.ft.
mont
wate
mont
to a
them
for t
the c
avail:
opera
expe!
to tl

— JOURNA R VATER WORKS ASSOCIATIO
Less
come
d servic
Al
tered
amiss
It she
butior
]
4 to 20-

"al. 38

-attle
loads
bates

not
as
[s it
vell,

on
his:
and
sult-
cus-
than
ners
ates
eek-
n of
reat

do-

“ove
een
y in
ther

July 1946
Financial Records of Three Seattle Firms :
Total volume of business $53,152,500.00 $3,911,440.00 $599,080.00 +
City occupation tax (0.1 per cent $53,152.50 | $3,911.44 $599.08
of total volume) 2S
Total water consumption, cu.ft. 96,474,700 3,048,200 5,344,500 7 44
Total water charges $59,568.40 $1,986.90 $3,468.70 |
Ratio of water charges to vol- :
ume of business 0.00112 0.00051 0.00579
Ratio if the regular rate has
been charged 0.00168 0.00077 0.00868

or not an ample supply can be met, not
the price. Seattle, during the course
of 40 years, has gradually become an
industrial city of some importance.
Three firms in business there for more
than 20 years were selected at random
from the water department's files.
They may be designated 4, B and C.
They pay the basic rate of 9¢ per 100
cu.ft. for the first 30,000 cu.ft. per
month and 6¢ per 100 cu.ft. for all
water used above 30,000 cu.ft. per
month, plus a 25¢ loading charge made
to all customers. The city charges
them an occupation tax of 0.1 per cent
for the privilege of doing business in
the city. Had water service not been
available these concerns could not have
operated. And yet the proportion of
expense to these concerns in relation
to their gross income is negligible.
Less than 0.6 per cent of the gross in-
come of a laundry is charged for water
service (Table 4).

A brief résumé of the history of me-
tered water rates in Seattle may not be
amiss. The record is one of stability.

It should be explained that the distri-
bution system, which is a standard 8-in.
grid in residential sections and a 12-
to 20-in. grid in business and industrial

sections, is paid for by the abutting _
properties, which, as of Dec. 31, 1945,

have contributed the sum of $8,928,- —
013.74 in local improvement assess-_
ments. The interest on that invest-
ment should preferably be included in

the ready-to-serve, or demand, charge. _
Seattle topography does not permit
the luxury of flat rates. Every drop of
domestic, commercial and industrial
water is required to be metered. In |
1908, a basic rate of 6¢ per 100 cuft.,
or $80 per mil.gal., was established,
plus a loading charge of 20¢ per a.
for each account. The only exception _
to this basic rate was made for fac- _
tories; laundries; hydraulic elevators;
federal, state and county agencies;
schools ; and other city utilities, which
were granted a special rate of 4¢ per 100
cu.ft. for all water used in excess of |
30,000 cu.ft. per month. This rate re- _
mained in effect for 30 years. a
In 1938, the city found itself in —
straitened financial circumstances due |
to the tax limitations on its property _
voted by the state and since embodied —
in the state constitution. A sewage
service charge was levied on water cus-
The basic meter rate was —

tomers.
raised from 6¢ to 9¢ per 100 cu.ft. with —

Its
1s to
n of
tility
ntity
r of
are

sell-

en-
arge
lefer
sup-

| |

a loading charge of 25¢ per month, or
$3.00 per year. The special or manu-
_ facturers’ rate was increased from 4¢
to 6¢ per 100 cu.ft.
ys In considering the ready-to-serve
charge for Seattle, it should be remem-
_bered that it has a gravity system and
therefore relatively less need be allo-
cated to the account of ready-to-serve.
=! A ready-to-serve charge of $3.00 per
_ year is charged each customer. Then
there must be taken into consideration
= local improvement assessment of
_ the average 50-ft. lot at $2.00 per ft.,
or $100, “which, capitalized at 6 per
cent, would give an annual charge of
$6.00, or 50¢ per month. Customers,
_ therefore, face an actual ready-to-serve
charge of $3.00 per year, plus a hidden
investment, the value of which is $6.00
per year, making an actual ready-to-
serve charge of $9.00 per year, or 75¢
per month. This is not allocated ac-
- cording to size of meter, but as a gen-
eral rule larger services are used at
longer frontages and with larger mains,
and therefore would require a larger
investment than the ordinary 50-it. lot.

The basic rate for all customers
within the city is 9¢ per 100 cu.ft., or
$120 per mil.gal. The total metered
water revenue for 1945 was $3,238,-
327.14, and the average unit revenue
per 100 cu.ft. was 9.84¢. The increase
in receipts over the basic rate comes
from sales of water outside the city at
substantially higher rates, and the use
by some customers of less than the
minimum quantities allowed.

But there is the special rate of 6¢ per
100 cu.ft. in excess of 10,000 cu.ft. per
month for manufacturers; laundries ;
hydraulic elevators; federal, state and
county agencies; and school districts,
and this cost the city of Seattle—or
the other Seattle water customers,

JOURNAL—-AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION

whichever way one may look at itr
the tidy sum of $299,183.42 in 1945
This represented about 9 per cent of
the total metered water income.

The subject of the sliding rate scales
is not a new one, but thinking on the
subject may have to be changed or
modified.

In the Water Works Practice Manual
(3), the following statement is made:

The standard form of schedule em.
braces three slides, with a fourth and
lower rate for large manufacturers, jf
deemed desirable. In general, a three-
slide rate fulfills all requirements. A
multiplicity of slides is cumbersome, and
serves no useful purpose. Many exist.
ing schedules contain larger numbers
ranging up to 15 or more. A single rate
to all consumers is of course the simplest
form of rate schedule. A single rate with
proper service charge may be the most
equitable where the cost of the mains in
the streets, or the major part of it, is
assessed against abutters. In other cases,
which are in the great majority, the wa-
ter works pays for the mains in the streets
and must earn a return on this cost,
Twenty miles, more or less, of 8-in. pipe
are required to reach 1,000 domestic con-
sumers, while a single factory may take
as much water through a single service
and meter. The actual cost per 1,000
gallons is greater to the domestic takers,

. and it is only fair that rates should be

made to recognize this difference in cost.
The block or slide rate is in general use
in American communities, not only in
water works, but in gas and electric utili-
ties. It is a recognition of the whole-
sale principle and encourages the use of
water in industries.

This statement was made over 20
years ago, and at that time. represented
the best thought on the subject. But
today we are not concerned with the
wholesale principle or encouragement
to industries to use large quantities of

Vol. 38

wat
Mo
new
pres
thei
they
thei
trib
not

ter

subs
help
reac
lishe

toa

Con

Ir
ficie
dolle
side:
tion:
plies
have
joye
reba
quire
gree
toma

Tl
servi
Its |
term
This

muck
dustr
be pr
dustr
by sf

4 842 a
large
consi
son I
=~ ¢

July 1946 7%
water. The shoe is on the other foot.
Most water systems worry less about

new business than about how to expand
present facilities within the means at
their command. The day is past when
they have to worry about a market for
their product. The problem is to dis-
tribute the costs equitably. One can-
not escape the conclusion that low wa-
ter rates in the higher brackets are a
subsidy. In effect, the smaller users
help pay for the larger. After a fair
ready-to-serve charge has been estab-
lished, the water rate ought to be open
to all on equal terms.
Conclusions

In the days to come, when the de-
ficiency in the purchasing power of the
dollar will have to be taken into con-
sideration when planning new addi-
tions and extensions to the water sup-
plies throughout the country, it will
have to be the large user, who has en-
joyed special privileges in the form of
rebates or lower rates, who will be re-
quired to foot the bill to a greater de-
gree than has heretofore been cus-
tomary.

The water industry is rendering a
service as well as selling a commodity.
Its product should be sold on equal
terms to all customers, large or small.
This service is just as essential to the
large customer, and mere volume of
consumption should not for that rea-
son be given undue consideration.

The water industry finds itself in
much the same position as other in-
dustries which in their infancy had to
be protected by a tariff. The water in-
dustry had to attract large water users
by paca inducements in rates. Mu-

Ges:

RATE SCHEDULES

3. Water Works Practice

843

nicipalities were in frequent competi-

tion for industrial preferment. But
times have changed, and with them,
the economic approach. Today it is

the water industry that is worrying
about the demands that may be put
upon it. It is not a question of finding
a market to demand its product, but
rather how that demand can be met.
In this new day there is no room for
preferential treatment for any one, nor
does the necessity for such preference
any longer exist.

Real equality in water rates and a
real appreciation of the service rend-
ered by the water utility to the com-
munity will force the issue of treating
every customer on even terms, with
favors to none.

It is the author’s belief that —_
will be best served by:

1. A proper ready-to-serve, or de- :
mand, charge based on the or de
quantity that may be demanded or re-
quired. 7

2. A consumption charge that re-
quires each customer to pay for what
he gets, be the volume small or cae

3. The abolition of all special oa
cessions of whatever nature and all
discriminations between individuals or
corporations.

References

1. Consoern, ArtHUR W. Modern Rate
Schedules. Jour. A.W.W.A., 37: 1124 |
(1945).

2. A Rate Structure for a Publicly Owned _
Utility. Decision of Public Service |
Commission of Wisconsin. Jour. A.W, F ;
W.A., 37: 1137 (1945).

Manual. Williams

& Wilkins Co., Baltimore, Md. (lst ed.

1925).

Lar

In the summation of his paper, the
author advocated three rate-making
principles that bear repeating: (1) a
ready-to-serve charge based on the
quantity that might be used, (2) a
single uniform rate to all users for
actual consumption and (3) no special
rates to anyone.

It is indeed refreshing to see some
one come out and express such forceful
and well-based ideas even though all
may not agree, wholly, with what is
said. This is particularly true when
it is realized that the author’s own de-
partment is very far from the ideal
which he would like to attain and there
would unquestionably be many serious
conflicts of opinion and action before
such a happy millenium could be
reached.

Minimum vs. Ready-to-Serve Charge

The proposals made by the author
are sufficiently at variance with many
ideas that have been generally accepted
by water departments in the past to
provoke considerable comment. Quite
appropriately the question is raised
“Should the r ady-to-serve charge in-
clude a minimum use?” It has been
stated that this is a matter of policy.
In Seattle, Wash., such a charge is now
made. Most water works men favor a
separate and distinct ready-to-serve
charge and the recommendation has
been made repeatedly in committee re-
ports and in many papers published in
the JourNAL. This writer formerly

subscribed to this viewpoint but does
so no longer, because, while living for
many years in a suburban community
served by a private company,

ee Chief Engr., North Jersey Dist. Water Supply Com., Wanaque, N.J.

JOURNAL——-AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION 38

Sale

had an opportunity to observe the in-
tense dislike of the public for such a
charge. <A long and bitter rate case
finally resulted in a change to a mini-
mum charge which allows 200 cut,
per quarter or the equivalent of around
+ gpd. per customer. This may sound
absurd and has been dubbed by many
as a “trick” minimum charge, which
admittedly it is. Nevertheless, it has
resulted in a tremendous reduction in
the number of complaints about the
cost of water.

Many water works men claim that
the separate ready-to-serve charge per-
mits a much more accurate estimate of
income. By contrast, when a minimum
charge is in vogue, the higher the quan-
tity allowed under the minimum, the
more difficult it is to forecast income,
and conversely, the lower the quantity
allowed, the more readily may income
be determined. Volumes such as the
200 cu.ft. per quarter, mentioned previ-
ously, are so small as to interfere very
little, if at all, with calculations of in-
come, and are certainly justifiable so

_long as unaccounted-for water repre-

sents 10 to 20 per cent of the gross
output.

The article by Consoer (1), referred
to at some length by the author, is an
excellent one and deserves all the praise
that he has accorded it. One impor-
tant point stressed by Consoer is that
if a family has gone to Florida and has
closed up its house for a considerable
time, a sudden return and the opening
up of the water service constitutes a de-
mand on the facilities of the system,
and a ready-to-serve charge is a propet
way to repay the water agency for such

Jui

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1, 38

July 1946

standby service. This is true, but it
still seems that a proper adjustment of
a minimum charge can take care of
such situations without great difficulty.

Gas and electric bills, many tele-
phone bills, and weekly bus or trolley
passes are common examples of the
readily accepted principle of minimum
charges. Small wonder then that the
public takes much more readily to such
a procedure. Unless and until other
utilities find it necessary to change their
rates correspondingly, it is difficult to
see or to prove why water works men
should be the principal ones to stand
out for such a change. It is a good old
American custom to expect to receive
something in return for every dollar,
and the minimum charge does this.in
a rather painless way if suitably ad-

justed.

Slides or Blocks

The arrangement of slides or blocks
is probably one of the most troublesome
of all rate problems. In Seattle the
basic rate is 9¢ per 100 cu.ft. for small
users and 6¢ for large ones, with
several intermediate steps. This rep-
resents a maximum ratio of 13 to 1.
Taking into account the minimum
charge, whereby the small consumer
pays 14¢ per 100 cu.ft. for the first
block, the ratio becomes 24 to 1. In
the Menasha, Wis., case (2), the ratio
is slightly over 6 to 1. The author
would eliminate all of this and raise
all rates to the same level regardless
of the quantity used. This writer does
not agree with that viewpoint and has
consistently advocated ratios between
2to 1 and 3 to 1.

American business prosperity has
been established on the principle that
quantity production results in lower
costs and prices, usually in a substan-
tial way. On the other hand the cus-

RATE SCHEDULES

845

tom which has been handed down for
centuries in India is just the opposite.
In that country, the system has been,
for example, to charge a person $5.00
if he bought a single pair of shoes,
$12.00 if he bought two pairs, while
three pairs might be $20.00. The
theory behind this naive method was
that the buyer depleted the stock of
the merchant, thus causing the latter
difficulty in refilling his shelves.

The argument that the cost of post-
age stamps and telegrams is constant,
as are rates for freight and trolley or
bus fares, is a forceful one. It might
be noted, however, that the govern-
ment frequently gives quantity rates
on publications, that telegraph com-
panies have special night rates and
standard message rates and that rail-
roads offer a much cheaper rate for
many items if carload lots instead of
less-than-carload lots are shipped. As
for buses and trolleys, weekly tickets,
school tickets and commutation tickets
are common examples of reduced fares.

The writer has been connected with
the Wanaque, N.J., supply, which pro-
duces and serves water only at whole-
sale at the city limits. This water, in
normal times, costs about $85 per mil.
gal. at the point of delivery to the vari-
ous municipalities. It is sold at retail
at rates varying between one and two
times to three or four times this figure.
The larger cities have the lower rates,
the smaller ones have the higher rates.

It is believed that water should not
be sold at less than cost, but never-
theless many large industries can be
likened to a small city and might well
be served at a rate representing the
production cost at the city line plus a
reasonable share of the distribution ex-
pense to the plant or factory. A fair
comparison will usually show that large
users can be served at a lower cost than

in-

‘ase

ini-

ft.

ind

any

lich

has

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846 ar JOURNAL—-AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION

TABLE 1

Cost of Water for New Jersey Municipalities Owning Distribution Systems
and Purchasing Entire Supply at Wholesale

Municipality | Water
Elizabeth* 109,912 | $216,433
66,244
10,857
Bayonne 99,198 | 392,025
Hoboken 50,115 213,883
Belleville 28,167 76,061
Nutley 36,617
Lyndhurst 54 28,913
Harrison 14,171 159,723
North Arlington 9,904 17,559
Highland Park 9,002 29,290
Verona 8,957 41,551
Sayreville 8,186 12,576
Wayne 6,868 2,375
Livingston reel 5,972 17,425
Cedar Grove* ar 5,208 9,925 |
mae: 1,396
Totowa 5,130 9,322
East Paterson 4,936 12,400
Caldwell 4,932 45,112 |
North Brunswick 4,562 11,886 |
East Brunswick 3,706 6,171 |
Milltown 3.515 12,016
West Caldwell* 3,458 15,495 |
0,525
Pompton Lakes 3,189 | 7,728
Saddle River Pas 3,169 | 6,079
Pequannock 2,856 | 310
East Newark > 2,273 | 6,335
Hohokust (ite 1,626 |
North Caldwell* 1,572 | 5,035
303
Roseland a 1,556 4,608
Montvale 1,342
Spotswood 1,201
Riverdale 1,110 | 1,677

| cou | |
ate
2,546.3 $ 85.00 $0.31 3.6
736.0 90.00 0.31 3.4
84.2 129.00 0.31 2.4
4,612.1 85.00 0.23 2.8
2,759.8 77.50 0.18 2.4
894.8 85.00 | 0.25 3.3
469.4 78.00 0.40 5.0
373.1 77.50 0.20 2.6
1,956.7 78.00 | 0.18 24
227.5 7130 | 0.20 2.6
252.2 115.00 | 0.34 3.0
184.7 225.00 0.41 1.8
'57.7 80.00 0.34 4.3
26.4 90.00 0.50 5.6
116.3 150.00 0.45 3.0
62.0 160.00 0.35 oa
Ne 125.00 0.35 2.8
109.7 85.00 0.30 3.5
118.1 105.00 0.20 1.9
200.5 225.00 0.40 1.8
180.00 0.33 1.8
170.00 0.50 2.9
66.8 180.00 0.40 2.2
265.00 | 0.45 17
230.00 0.45 2.0
97.4 | 80.00 | 0.40 5.0
105.00 | 0.40 3.8
3.4 90.00 0.62 6.9
64.0 99.00 0.24 2.4
17.9 156.00 0.40 2.6
305.00 0.42 1.4
1.3 230.00 0.42 17
230.00 0.40 1.7
11.8 210.00 0.30 1.4
135.00 0.50 3.7
95.00 0.50 Sa

isolated residential areas. Why should
the large customers not be given the
advantage of such a situation?

One very odd circumstance con-
nected with the Wanaque supply seems
worth recording One municipality tak-

* Purchases water from more than one source.
¢ Also purchases varying quantities which are not tabulated.

45%
ing water at wholesale from this source
has a fixed rate of $1.50 per 1,000 cu.
ft. or $200 per mil.gal., and serves wa-
ter to a few large industries located
within its boundaries, including a rail-
road that took 2 or 3 mgd. During the

Th
is abs
many
subsic
tions
are tl

dri
th
=. inc
sul
the
the
ode
agr
can
wo!
in |
no
the
wat
trot
mac
cost
in n
ter 1
the
the
rate.
it m
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resic
tion
pipe
it ha
and
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Actu
$0 gt
ratio
surbu
tion.
Subs:

July 1946 RATE SCHEDULES

depression, the railroad threatened to
drill wells and obtain its own supply,
thus depriving the municipality of this
income. A number of conferences re-
sulted in selling water to the railroad at
$100 per mil.gal., with the consent of
the other large industries located within
the municipality. There were many
odd circumstances that governed this
agreement, but it serves to show what
can happen. Certainly most water
works men would hold up their hands
in horror at such an arrangement, but
no one has yet been able to prove that
the outcome did anything but help that
water department over a very disas-
trous period in its financial history.

In support of some of the statements
made by the writer, Table 1 shows the
cost of water for various municipalities
in northeastern New Jersey where wa-
ter is purchased at wholesale, and gives
the highest residential rate as well as
the ratio of the retail to the wholesale
rate. The highest ratio is 6.9 to 1, and
it may be noted that the system for
which this ratio obtains is in a small
residential community where distribu-
tion costs per customer (in terms of
pipe required) are high. Furthermore,
it has only been in use for a few years
and still carries a relatively high debt
service charge.

One would expect to find the low
ratios in the large cities and vice versa.
Actually, while the variations are not
so great in the large cities, the lowest
ratio of all, 1.4 to 1, occurs in a small
surburban “a of 1,300 popula-

tion.

There is no question that the author
is absolutely right when he states that
many low water rates are nothing but
subsidies to industry. Such condi-
tions are fundamentally wrong. But

are they any worse than the tax-free

inducements that were offered during
the depression, or the many other ways
in which enthusiastic civic bodies at-
tempted to lure large establishments
into their beloved cities?

The governing factors should be de-
termined only after a careful analysis
of the cost of production, cost of dis-
tribution, and relation of large usage
to the ability of the supply to continue
to function at the same costs if and
when large demands are placed upon it.

One of the notable items in the
Seattle water department statistics is
that of the per capita consumption of
157 gpd. The writer has found that
such high usage usually results in a
great leveling off of unit costs, whereas
the opposite is true where per capita
demand is low. Seattle is 100 per cent
metered, and curves of water consump-
tion published in the Journat in 1937
(3) show that the expected per capita
use for a little more than 500,000 peo-
ple (where fully metered) should be
around 120 gpd. Thus Seattle is on the
high side and rates should be corre-
spondingly low. In the same article,
the average revenue for this population
was estimated at about $105 per mil.
gal. The cost of supplying water at
Seattle was $91.84 per mil.gal. This
tends to bear out the theory that higher
consumption results in lower cost.

Limit of Supply

The crux of the author’s argument
lies in his important statement that
“Most water systems worry less about
new business than about how to ex-
pand present facilities within the means
at their command. The day is past
when they have to worry about a
market for their product.” There is
no question that this is a common con-

dition in many parts of the country

But it continue ?

Tce

cu.

wa-

ted

ail-

the

3
2

848

water works men think so, but they
wish they really knew the answer.

The writer has consistently advo-
cated breaking away from the old
American custom of using drinking
water for all industrial purposes. It
is true that many epidemics have been
caused by dual systems of one type or
another. In most instances, the danger
can be overcome by heavily chlorinating
the industrial supply. If, even after
rigorous inspection, a cross-connection
should permit a mixture, the presence
of a high chlorine residual will ordi-
narily protect the individual and at the
same time warn of a danger. Cer-
tainly it is one way to combat the
dwindling margin of excess of our wa-
_ ter resources over usage.

_ There are distinct evidences of a
- growing tendency in this country to-
ward the establishment of large indus-
trial water supplies, and notable ex-
amples are to be found in New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, Alabama and California.
No doubt there are many such in-
stances in other states which have not
publicized but are nevertheless
important.

An example of what happens when
such low-cost sources are not available
exists in the decision of a large indus-
try which has recently made plans to
establish a plant in Mexico at a loca-
tion where there is ample water avail-
able and where the disposal of trade
wastes is not troublesome. It is a
rather frequent occurrence to find that
an industry has decided to locate an
additional plant in another town or
another state, largely because of lack
of proper water facilities, but this is the
first time that the writer’s attention
has been drawn to an industry which,
for the same reason, is leaving the
country. It is a situation which should

make us all stop and think and prob-
ably, in many instances, revise our

JOURNAL—AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION - Vol. 38

planning methods for the future. Cer.
tainly few industries can pay $200 of
$300 per mil.gal. for water and still use
large quantities. Nevertheless, this js
what many will have to pay in a num-
ber of cities and communities through-
out the United States, should they con.
sider locating a plant within the con-
fines of the many areas that have water
rates in this range.

Previous Rate Papers

In reviewing the files of the Jour.
NAL, one is impressed by the large
number of contributions on the subject
of water rates, as well as the fact that
it is difficult to present a viewpoint at
any time that is entirely new. Within
the present century, one of the first
items of particular interest was that of
Dabney H. Maury in 1907 (4), in
which he stated a number of funda-

mental concepts which still obtain
today.
In 1908, G. B. Bassett (5) con-

tributed an article in which the follow-
ing concepts were advanced: (1) If
there is a scarcity of water and waste
is to be reduced to a minimum, the rate
should be based on a low or no mini-
mum charge and a high quantity rate.
(2) If the fixed charges are high and
the operating expense low, as in gravity
works, with an ample supply of water,
the minimum rate should be high and
the quantity rate low. (3) If the fixed
charges are reasonable and the oper-
ating expenses not excessive, both the
minimum rate and the quantity rate
may be made moderate.

It hardly seems possible that anyone
can successfully dispute the logic in the
above statements.

In 1914, a committee report was sub-
mitted by F. C. Jordan (6), containing
a tabulation on water rates, comprising
one of the most careful and complete
studies up to that time. One of the

his |
outst
Tl
Mr.
but 1
wate
ment
ter.
expel
lowin
publi
Starte
sion
benef;
vocat
ments
privat
for al
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rende:
ter de

al. 38

Cer-
or
| use
is is
1um-
ugh-
con-
con-
yater

OUR-
large
bject
that
nt at
ithin
first
at of
in
nda-
btain

con-
llow-
) If
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rate.
avity
rater,
fixed
oper-
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rate

n the

sub-
ining
{sing
iplete
f the

July 1946

important conclusions in the accom-
panying article was a warning on the
fallacy of comparing meter rates be-
tween dissimilar cases.

In 1931, W. A. Kunigk (7) stressed
both the relation of industrial rates to
other rates, and proper minimum
charges. The writer considers this
contribution a very good one and be-
lieves that one of the most important
statements therein was to the effect
that in establishing water rates a city
should attempt to look 20 years ahead
in order to fix a schedule that would be
reasonably stable.

In 1933, an article on analysis of
metered revenue appeared by P. J.
Dishner (8), representing a most care-
ful digest of the subject. It is an ex-
cellent example of what should be done
in all municipalities almost irrespective
of size.

In 1936, Mr. Schunke (9) presented
some ideas that may be regarded as a
corollary of some of his ideas just ex-
pressed. Perhaps they were regarded
as somewhat radical at the time, but
his present contribution is even more
outstanding.

There is one particular feature of
Mr. Schunke’s discourse that cannot
but receive praise from practically all
water works men. That is his state-
ment that there should be no free wa-
ter. Nearly all water men know from
experience that once the practice of al-
lowing free water or reduced rates to
public or charitable institutions has
started, there is no end to the proces-
sion which gathers in line to receive the
benefits. The writer has always ad-
vocated that municipal water depart-
ments conduct themselves as nearly like
private companies as possible and pay
for all services that they receive, as
well as charge for all services that they
render. This would mean that the wa-
ter department would pay taxes, office

RATE SCHEDULES

849

rent, legal and engineering fees and
the like, and, in return, would receive
standard water rate returns from all
schools, public buildings, and, in addi-
tion, would be repaid for fire protection
either by equivalent hydrant rental or
some other equitable basis.

Conclusion

mented on his reasoning and his cour- |
age in presenting viewpoints that cer-
tainly will be severely criticized by ©
some users in his own city. It takes
a great deal of courage to make such ©
statements, and if the steps that he
advocates are to the best interests of
the city of Seattlhe——and certainly one
must agree that most of them probably |
are—then it is to be earnestly hoped
that he may achieve the desired results. _

References
1, ConsorrR, ArtTHUR W. Modern Rate
Schedules. Jour. A.W.W.A., 37:1124
(1945). 9
2. A Rate Structure for a Publicly-Owned
Utility. Decision of Public Service —
Commission of Wisconsin. Jour.
A.W.W.A., 37:1137 (1945). _
3. CAPEN, CHARLES H. How Much ~~
Do We Consume? How Much Do ©

We Pay for It? Jour. A.W.W.A.,
29:201 (1937).

4. Maury, Dapney H. Rates for Water

Service. Proc. A.W.W.A, p. 33)
(1907).
5. Bassett, G. B. Water Meter Rates. :

Proc. A.W.W.A., p. 619 (1908).
6. Jorpan, F. C. Report of Committee on
Tabulation of Water Rates and Other ©
Information of Interest to Water Com-_

panies. Jour, A.W.W.A.,, 1:231
(1914).
7. KunicK, W. A. Problems in Water
Rates. Jour, A.W.W.A., 23:1151_
(1931).
8. DisHnerR, P. J. Analysis of Metered
Revenue. Jour. A.W.W.A., 25:375

(1933).
9. Scuunke, G. B. Water Rates. Jour.
AW.W.A,, 28 :938 (1936).

pat author has presented the case
for a uniform rate for all water
users, emphasizing the need for a ready-
to-serve charge based on the size of the
meter. He also stresses the fact that
the water department is not interested
in offering any inducements to new in-
dustry but must concern itself with
meeting current demands. Further-
more, new industrial requirements for
services which will be charged for at
less than the domestic rates, necessitate
capital expenditures for enlarging the
system.

It has been pointed out that industry
is attracted to that community which
has an adequate water supply at a low
rate. New industries in a city mean
consistent growth, stabilized employ-
and permanent residents.

Considerations Affecting Rates

What is the reason for the trend to
ownership? A municipally
owned system can furnish an ample
supply of water to the greatest number
at the lowest possible cost. A water
_ works plant, to be efficient, must al-
ways be operated with a view to ex-
pansion. It is so vital to the city’s
growth that future requirements must
be based on population and business
trends. Management must co-operate
closely with planning commissions so
as to be prepared for all contingencies
resulting from major improvements
and subdivision developments.

Only rates based on metered con-
sumption are being discussed here.
Flat rates, based on frontage and ap-
purtenances supplied, are so antiquated
and inequitable that consideration is
not warranted.

DISCUSSION—M. F. Hoffman
Former Commercial Supt., Water Works, Cincinnati, Ohio

It is generally agreed and account for revenues for the 1,00!

that universal metering is the only
practical method for water charges, a
the customer pays only for water used
on his premises and is not required ty
carry the losses due to wanton waste
and leakage prevalent in unmetered
areas.

A metered water rate must produce
revenues sufficient to provide for op.
eration and maintenance of the plant,
amortization of bonds and interest, de.
preciation and a reasonable return (to
provide a “cushion” for emergencies
and future capital improvements). A
privately owned utility can finance a
major improvement from its working
capital and, upon completion of the
project, capitalize the addition by issu-
ing stock for the amount expended, as
then it should start to earn revenues,
A municipally owned utility, however,
must finance its improvements either
from cash surplus or bond issues. The
problem is then how to apply this rate
to large and small customers.

As Mr. Schunke has noted, rates
have been set without thorough studies
being made. Cities of comparable size
have different rates, because of vary-
ing local factors. Until annual water
works reports are prepared with some
degree of uniformity (and it appears
that a committee has this project under
way), it is not possible to make an in-
telligent comparison of different cities

Rates must be based on sound eco
nomic principles. It is far more eco
nomical to furnish 1 mil.gal. of water
to one customer through a 6-in. meter
than it is to furnish 1,000 gal. through
each of 1,000 ?-in. meters. It is alse
more costly to read meters, bill, collect

July

cust
tome
In
per
ark,
Ohio
wate
that
large
[hes
fixed
tlona
rate 1
A
tome!
mum
the ¢
meter
the d
there
serve,
ing sc
of ba:
viding
than
to the

Mete!
At

shoulc
all cu
12¢ p
regar¢
cu.ft.

Burns
Comp:
quarte

1,(

Min
the mi

850 = WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION Vol.
4 =

Vol. July 1946 RATE SCI

-ystomers than for the one large cus-

tomer.

In this writer’s own experience, 2
per cent of all the customers in New-
fark, N.J., Cleveland and Cincinnati,
Ohio, account for 50 per cent of all
water revenues. It is fair to assume
that this ratio is applicable to other
larger metered cities in this country.
These industrial customers represent a
fixed demand for water, and unques-

oduce} tionably can be supplied at a lower
rate than the domestic user.
plant} A large number of residential cus-

tomers do not use more than the mini-
mum quantity of water allowed under
the charge based on the size of the
meter. To maintain the supply to meet
the demands of these many services,
there must be a minimum, or ready-to-
serve, charge. It is obvious that a slid-
ing scale of rates is the only fair method
f basing charges for water used, pro-
viding that the lowest rate is never less
than the cost of producing the supply
to the tap.

Meter Rates in Cincinnati

A résumé of Cincinnati’s experience

should be enlightening. Prior to 1930,

all customers in the city were charged

12¢ per 100 cu.ft. for all water used,
regardless of the quantity. Outside the

city limits, the rate was 18¢ per 100

cu.ft. A rate study was made by the

Burns and McDonnell Engineering

Company, and the following rates, for

quarterly bills, were adopted:

1,000 cu.ft. per Quarter
First 1
Next 29
Next 150
Next 1,320
Next 1,500
Next 6,000
Over 9,000

Rate per 100 cu.ft.

Minimum rates, based on the size of
the meter, allowed as many thousand

IEDULES 851

cubic feet as the rate provided. For
instance, the 2-in. minimum charge of —
$4.80 allowed 5,255 cu-ft.

Application of this schedule on May
1, 1931, resulted in a yearly reduction ©
of revenues of $300,000, which was —
exactly what was desired. Only two
customers came into the lowest rate
bracket and, because this rate was es-
tablished, one of the two abandoned >
plans for its own water plant.
mies in operation, specifically a new ©
customers’ accounting system which
used quarterly rather than monthly
billing (except for the large customers,
for whom monthly billing was con-
tinued at one-third of the quantities
listed in the schedule, thus producing
one-half of all revenues regularly each
month), and a large increase in the
number of new customers from 1931
to 1937, during the depression, war-
ranted another reduction in rates. On
Apr. 1, 1937, the 12¢ and 11¢ rates
were abolished (thus setting the rate
for the first 180,000 cu.ft. at 10¢ per
100 cu.ft.), and this resulted in a
further decrease of revenues, amount-
ing to $265,000. The rate outside the
city was reduced to 15¢ per 100 cu-ft.,
which was 50 per cent higher than the
new city base rate. All customers ben-
efitted by this change. This sound
schedule of rates is still productive of
a large surplus each year.

A plan for financing and construct-
ing a $23,000,000 sewage disposal
plant and system is about ready for
execution, and water rates will again
be reduced to offset partially the
charge which will be added to water
bills for the sewage plant financing.
From data showing quantities used in
the various rate brackets, it is possible
to arrive at a sound downward revi-
sion of the top rate or rates to obtain
a reduction that will spread the advan-

Econo-

n (t

NCles

A
1cé

rking

the |
as
nues,

‘ever,
‘ither

The
rate

yal

Vater

ears

nder

‘tes

tage over the greatest number of cus-
tomers.

Cleveland’s Meter Rates

Now let us look over the Cleveland
rate set-up. Here is a striking exam-
ple of a schedule which should be
streamlined to facilitate billing and cus-
tomer accounting and improve public
relations.

A rate study made resulted in a rec-
ommendation of which the following
schedule was authorized. All accounts
are billed quarterly regardless of the
size of the meter.

Meter Size, Minimum Charges
mm,
and j 125.

‘ $

2 10.00
3 “lif 21.00
4 37.50 cus
6 85.00
8 >

150.00

~The minimum charge is to be col-
lected for the first 750 cu.ft. or less of
water supplied to each customer. In
excess of 750 cu.ft., the rates per 1,000
cu.ft. are: 75¢ for the first 24,500;
67.2¢ for the next 225,000; and 57.6¢
- for all over 250,250, with a discount of
3 per cent if paid on or before the date
noted on the bill. The discount is not
applicable if it would bring the bill be-
low the minimum charge. These rates
apply to the city.
the

-JOURNAL—AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION

] "al. 3

375 cu.ft. are allowed instead of 75
Then the rates per 1,000 cu.ft. are: (3
low and first high service: $1.012 fg
the first 24,750; $0.836 for the ney,
225,000; and $0.748 for all over 250.
125; (b) second high service: $1.5&
for the first 24,750; $1.452 for the nex
225,000; $1.188 for all over 250,125
(c) third high service: $2.112 for aj
over 375. Discount provisions are the
same as for the city customers.

It was found desirable to revise the
original proposal downward so as t
reduce revenues estimated under tha
schedule by 5 per cent. The decimal
noted are the result of the application
of the slide rule. Cleveland now has,
complicated rate structure which re

tards billing and customer accounting};

to such a degree that simplification of
the rate structure would effect econo-
mies of considerable proportions. Al
though modern billing machines are
used, it is possible to complete only 7%
bills per machine daily. The average
with a normal rate schedule, and m%
discount, is between 1,500 and 2,00
bills. This example is in marked con-
trast to the procedure at Cincinnati,

Summing up, the commercial costs
alone (meter reading, billing, collect-
ing and accounting) comprise a large
part of the domestic customers’ bills.
Since comparatively few, or about 2
per cent, of all customers, account for
50 per cent of water revenues, and 9
entail considerably less overhead, they
should be entitled to a lower rate. This
is ot a

subsidy ; it is good business.

Co
but a
prepal
will ag
dina
requir
just “
ing of
over
taking
becom
so tha
Many
resisti
gain t
bers
twenty
Water
five A
no sm
men
tional
other
many
cially
added,
mendo
Afte
ture, a:
seven
ments
ture a
the fas
was
work,
the wa

.
He,
|_|
“Te

t
(a
2 for
nex
250).
51.584
> next
),125:
or all
re the
HE title of this report of the Meter
tht Committee may appear facetious,
4S any person participating in the
_ that preparation of standard specifications
imal} \i]] agree that such work is not just an
‘ationf ordinary pain in the head but one that
has a requires a more superlative word than
1 Te} just “headache.” To obtain the meet-
ntingl ing of thoughts of so many individuals.
mM Of over such a vast territory is an under-

taking filled with minor worries which
AH become cumulative as time progresses,
so that the task often appears hopeless.
Many immovable bodies and almost ir-
resistible forces are encountered. To
gain the approval of the eleven mem-
bers of the Meter Committee, the
‘|twenty members of the Committee on
ti. | Water Works Practice, and the thirty-
five Association Directors is, in itself,
no small task. When the committee-
men of some of the Association’s sec-
tional committees, the committees of
other water works organizations and
many interested individuals not offi-
cially connected with any committee are
added, however, the task becomes tre-
mendous.

After reviewing all available litera-
ture, and spending one or more days at
seven meter manufacturing establish-
ments to discuss methods of manufac-
ture and problems which confronted
the factory managers, the committee
was ready to start its labors. This
work, which was interrupted during
the war, is now very nearly completed.

Committee Report

Samuel F. Newkirk Jr., Chairman, A.W.W.A. Committee 7M—Meters
Presented on May 7, 1946, at the Annual Conference, St. Louis, Mo.

tions at

At the very beginning, it had to be
determined whether two sets of speci-
fications should be written, one for a
Class A meter and the other for a
Class B meter, a fashion that was in
vogue in governmental circles at that

time. The committee quickly disposed —
of this question by deciding to write

but one set of specifications. a
rey

Some features, such as_ sensitivity
and noise, which would be desirable
additions to the specifications, were not
included, as there were insufficient data
upon which to base a requirement.

There is some evidence that a 8-in.
displacement meter will start register-
ing at about the 0.05-gpm. rate, but
there are little or no data on other
sizes. In England, there are no stand-
ard specifications, but manufacturers’
literature lists the “starting flow”’ rates.
French manufacturers also advertise
the rates at which registration begins.
In Holland and Germany, there are
tentative, national meter standards
which specify the rate of flow at which
the meter starts registering. The ac-
curacy requirement in our specifica-
“minimum test flow” partially
compensates for the lack of a require-
ment at which registration commences.

One specifications writer limits the
permissible maximum noise of a -in.
displacement meter to 10 decibels above
room level when the sound-measuring

Sensivity and Noise

_microphone is placed not more than 1
_ ft. from the meter while being tested at
the maximum flow of 20 gpm. A deci-
bel, by the way, is non-technically de-
fined as the smallest difference in
~sound which can be detected by the hu-
ear. Fifty decibels are recom-
_ mended for living rooms, and the noise
created by an airplane engine is 110
decibels. The committee was unable
_ to obtain any information on the vol-
ume of noise made by meters in oper-
Features which are of importance in
- some communities, but which were not
considered universal requirements, were
not included in the specifications. The
- committee members always had in mind
that they were preparing a document
primarily for operators in communi-
ties where the staff was not sufficiently
large to include specifications writing.
Consequently, items which would in-
crease the cost of manufacture without
a corresponding increase in effective-
ness were omitted. In this category
were placed the tin coating of cases
and measuring chambers, the use of
acorn nuts on external bolts, a 250-
psi. pressure test, the lining of cast-
iron bottom caps, the drilling of regis-
ter-box screws for seal-wire holes on
two diameters, the coloring of register
hands and so on.

The committee also had in mind that
it was preparing specifications and not
designing a meter. Not too much at-
tention, therefore, was given to the sug-
gestion that the outer case be “‘stream-
lined” and made more attractive.

The specifications in force when the
committee started its work had been
criticized for not being specific in the
requirements for materials. Hence
considerable study was given to the in-
clusion of material specifications, but
opinion was sharply divided as to the

JOURNAL—AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION

Voll. 8

propriety of such a step. After much
discussion and debate, it was decided
not to specify materials. As a com.
promise, a bronze, which is satisfactory
for most waters, and a satisfactory rub
ber for pistons, impellers and bushings,
are mentioned in the notes accompany.
ing the specifications.

The specifications writing was dj.
vided into three steps, as follows: first
the preparation of displacement meter
specifications, which has been com.
pleted, the specifications now being an
Association standard; next, the prep.
aration of current and compound meter
specifications, which are now a tenta-
tive standard ; and, lastly, the fire-sery-
ice meter specifications which are now
being circulated within the meter com-
mittee for final ballot.

Displacement Meters

The displacement meter specifica:
tions, as the name implies, include all
meters which are practically positive
in action and displace a fixed quan-
tity of water with each movement ofa
piston. These specifications replace
the specifications of 1921, which were
for disc meters only.

The registration requirement now in
force—that not less than 98.5 per cent
nor more than 101.5 per cent of the
water actually passed through the meter
shall be recorded when tested at any
rate of flow within the “normal test
flow limits,” and not less than 95 per
cent at the “minimum test flow’—isa
change which has been well publicized.
The former figures were 98 to 102 per
cent, and 90 per cent, respectively. Ac-
curacy curves for 134 different dis
placement meters manufactured in 1938
were furnished by the manufacturers
Of these, 52 indicated that they would
not meet this requirement, tite,

July 19

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July 1946

It is interesting to compare Ameri-
can accuracy standards with those of
European nations. “The Commission
for Normalization in Netherland” has
a tentative standard for a 5-cu.m. (22-
gpm.) unit which requires that it must
begin to register when the flow through
it is a maximum of 7 1. an hour (0.31
gpm. ), and that, on forward flow, the
measuring error shall be not more than
+2 per cent of the quantity passed
through the meter above the rate of
201. an hour (0.88 gpm.). The Ger-
man tentative standards are the same.
The starting-flow rate in these two
countries is practically the same as our
minimum test flow rate (0.25 gpm.)
ior a meter of the same capacity, and the

the same range as that within our nor-
mal test flow limits. English #-in.
meters usually start registering at the
(,03-gpm. rate and are accurate within
+2 per cent at rates of flow above 0.10
to 0.15 gpm. The French meters are
substantially the same as the English.
It must be kept in mind, however, that
the English and French meters are not
f the nutating disc type. In Yugo-
savia, the National Bureau of Weights
specifies that meters must start to oper-
ate at not more than 2 per cent of the
nominal capacity and shall have an
accuracy of + 2 per cent at 10, 50 and
100 per cent of the nominal capacity.
Equally well known are the speci-
fcations that the maximum _ permissi-
ble loss of head at the safe operating
capacity be 15 psi. for 2- to 1-in. meters
and 20 psi. for meters larger than 1-in.
The former figure was 25 psi. for all
sizes. Forty-one of the 171 types and
sizes manufactured in 1938 will not
eet these specifications.

Not so well known but of great im-
portance is the revision in the connec-
tions specifications. Thread specifica-

METER CEPHALALGIA

2 per cent accuracy covers practically.

tions have been adopted that will per-
mit a more practical and satisfactory
connection with meters than has yet
been manufactured. Many think this
is the most outstanding improvement
made in the specifications. At the time
this committee started its work, all
manufacturers did not use the same
thread—some were straight, others
tapered. The new thread will provide
for uniformity in the future and will
not destroy the interchangeability
among meters of the same manufac-
turer, but will improve interchange-
ability among meters of different manu-
facturers. Specifications for two-bolt
oval flanges for 14-in. and 2-in. meters
have been added.

One trouble in preparing the speci-
fications was the determination of the
meter sizes that should be included.
Some thought that no specifications
should be written for displacement
meters larger than 2 in., on the grounds
that when water is to be measured at
a rate greater than 160 gpm., a single
displacement meter is not the correct
instrument. For this situation, a com-
pound meter or a battery of displace-
ment meters is the proper installation.
Also, some manufacturers’ catalogs list
odd sizes, such as 2 X }-in., } X 1-in.,
1 X 1}-in., 14$-in. and 23-in. These
odd sizes were not included as they are
not really sizes but designate either the
size of the connection or the next
smaller size meter with a larger con-
nection, and their addition might cause
confusion. It was finally decided to
incorporate only the sizes used in the
1921 specifications.

Suggestions that the size of the meter
should be designated by its capacity or
its speed were considered. Holland
ineters, for example, are designated by
their capacity, as 3 cu.m., 5 cu.m., and
so on.

‘
“
=
7
44

The “Registers” and “Intermediate
Gear Trains” sections have been re-
written and amplified. Oil-enclosed
gear trains are now included. Study
was given to the standardization of the
register dial. Some now operate clock-
wise, others counterclockwise, and
there is also no uniformity in the loca-
tion of the test hand on the dial. This
proved to be one of the immovable
bodies encountered. It was finally de-
cided that, although the register dial
situation is chaotic and inconsistent,
7 it is still not the function of the com-
mittee to trespass too far into the field
which many think is not within the
province of specifications writing.

Manuel J. Puente, the Association
Director representing the Cuban Sec-
tion, suggested that the meter register
should indicate in cubic meters as well
as in cubic feet or gallons. Perhaps the
Canadian director should have recom-
mended Imperial gallons. During an
inspection trip through one of the meter
plants, a register dial-plate which had
imprinted on it the letters SYAKU was
obtained. At first, it could not be de-
termined whether this was some foreign
unit of measure or the alphabetical
designation for some utility. Later it
developed that it was a Japanese unit
of measure (0.0045 gal.). Should
this unit also be included in the speci-
fications ?

: Seriously, there is considerable merit
to the suggestion that specifications
_ be written using the metric system for
use where that system is in force.
Practically all of the Association
- members, of necessity, use the English
- measures of foot and gallon. The foot,
_ which is two-thirds of the Olympic
-_ cubit, is two-thirds of the length of the
forearm from the elbow to the middle
finger tip. The gallon comes from two

856 /JOURNAL—AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION

valid, old, English liquid measures—
the wine gallon, which is the US.
standard, and the ale gallon, the Brit.
ish standard. Why two standards of
volume should have been required
originally is a mystery. Perhaps they
represented a consumer’s maximum
capacity for those beverages in an eye.
ning of solid drinking.

The maximum speed of the pistons
of the meters is a newcomer to the
specifications. This addition caused
much turbulence and brought forth one
of the aforementioned irresistible forces.
The original ideas on speed endured
for practically all of the meters except
the 8-in. size. The committee has in
its files several letters and 80 telegrams
received from various water operators
over a large section of the country ad-
vocating the figure that is now in the
specifications instead of the first figure
used. On the other hand, one group
which had been very helpful refused to
participate further in the work because
the original specification for the speed
of the 2-in. meters was not adhered to.

The stipulation that the manufacturer
shall, upon request, submit a sample of
the meter is also an addition to the
specifications, as is the section dealing
with frost protection devices. Con-
sideration was given to specifying the
pressure at which the frost bottoms
would yield as well as the pressure be-
low which there would be no separa-
tion or leakage.

The over-all length of the meters,
which was a part of the notes accom-
panying the 1921 specifications, is now
a part of the specifications. We are in-
deed fortunate in this country in hay-
ing but one length for each size of dis
placement meter. One foreign manu
facturer makes 15 different over-all
lengths for the same size meter.

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July 1946

The revision of the current and com-
sound meter specifications did not pre-
nt so formidable a task, as many of
the decisions made during the prepara-
tion of the displacement meter specifica-
tions applied equally to these meters.

Current meters do not have a large
seld of usefulness as they are not sensi-
tive to small flows and are most useful
where there is need for a free discharge
and heavy service. Their field is
limited largely to measuring the supply
to railroad standpipes, elevators, water
carts and water motors, and for in-
stallations where the demands are only
for heavy flows.

The specification of standard lengths

for current and compound meters is
another one of the “immovable bodies”
heretofore mentioned. A large varia-
tion exists in the over-all lengths and
practically every manufacturer has a
different length of meter while some
manufacturers have more than one
length for the same size meter. It was
finally given up as an impossible task
to adopt a standard length of meter
that would prove of value for the As-
sociation’s purposes.
The permissible loss of head was
changed from 25 psi. to 20 psi. and the
accuracy requirement at minimum test
flow rates was changed from 90 per
cent to 95 per cent, with some change
in the minimum test flow rate of the
smaller current meters. The maximum
speed of the impellers is a feature added
to the specifications.

Fire Service Meters

The revision of the fire service meter
specifications was a relatively easy task,
inasmuch as the changes made in the

METER CEPHALALGIA

Current and Compound Meters displacement, current and compound

meter specifications were adopted so
far as they applied. The principal

between the rate of flow at the begin-
ning and end of the “change-over”
from bypass meter to main meter.
The fire service meter, as the name
implies, is designed strictly for fire
service use. The measurement of flow |
recorded on the main meter, through ©
which only a relatively small portion of ©
the total flow actually passes, is likely —
to be inaccurate unless careful atten-
tion is given to keeping all parts of the
meter in the best working condition.

Notes

Except for the addition of the bronze
and rubber recommendations previ-
ously referred to, only minor changes
were made to the notes accompanying —
the specifications.

Acknowledgment

For their untiring work in the prep-
aration of the specifications, the chair-
man wishes to thank the members of —
the committee—Edward V. Buchanan, ©
James G. Carns Jr., A. P. Kuranz, H. -
W. Niemeyer, H. V. Pedersen, George ©
Read, George J. Rohan, George C. —
Sopp, L. S. Vance and W. Victor
Weir.

For the time and advice which they —
gave unstintingly and which has been —
of invaluable assistance, thanks are |
due to the members of the Meter
Manufacturers’ Advisory Committee—
Charles Bachmann, R. R. Anderson
and A. R. Whittaker. i

Many valuable contributions have
also been made by the New England
Water Works Association’s co-operat-
ing committee—Richard H. Ellis, War-
ren A. Gentner and D. H. Hall. =

1
||
Weta?

858 JOURNAL——-AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION

In addition, many others, too many _ turers designed and engineered a meter
to mention, have assisted, and it is far superior to anything the trade Was
hoped that the efforts of all these then demanding ti5”
gentlemen will not again be charac-

terized as they were in a recent pub
lication: “At a time when the AW. Reference
_ W.A. meter specifications were holding Myers, James W., Jr. Increasing the Sale
the umbrella over a lot of weak sisters, ot Revenue Water. Jour. A.W.W.A.,, 3g
the more aggressive meter manufac- 215 (1946).

Vol.

In Fig. 1 of Thomas F. Wolfe’s paper, “How to Prevent Breaks in
Cast-Iron Pipe,” Vol. 38, p. 765, June 1946 JourNAL, the legends on the
three bottom views showing methods of laying pipe were in error. Instead
of “Backfill Not Tamped” they should have read “Backfill Tamped.”

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N? plan for the development of river
basin resources in this country can
be completely comprehensive and all-
embracing without due consideration of
municipal water supply and sanitation.
These had an important place in the
planning of the comprehensive program
for control of floods and development
of water resources of the Missouri
River basin. That program has en-
tered the construction stage this spring.
The harnessing of the longest river in
the nation has begun in a civil works
program of first importance in the na-
tion today.

The Corps of Engineers and the wa-
ter works and sanitary engineers serv-
ing city, county and state departments
have had many problems of mutual in-
terest through the years. They have
frequently assisted the Corps with ad-
vice and counsel on engineering prob-
lems, and the Corps has attempted to
help in some of their troubles.

The water supply of many cities and
towns in the Missouri Valley is taken
from the Missouri River or its tribu-
taries; therefore, what the Corps of
Engineers and other federal agencies
do to this river system is of major im-
portance to water works men in this
region and to the people they serve.

Flood Control Act of 1944

The Congress of the United States
| the importance of safe-

recog nizec

The Missouri River Development Program

By Lewis A. Pick

Brig. Gen., Missouri River Div. Engr., Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army
Presented on May 8, 1946, at the Annual Conference, St. Louis, Mo.

guarding and improving the source of
municipal water supply in the Flood
Control Act of 1944. It was this act,
signed by the President in December
1944, which authorized for the Mis-
souri basin a plan long neglected in the
development of our inland economy.

The Flood Control Act, set out in
Public Law 534, commits the federal
government to a policy of recognition
of the rights and interests of the states:
“It is hereby declared to be the policy
of the Congress to recognize the inter-
ests and rights of the states in deter-
mining the development of the water-
sheds within their borders and likewise
their interests and rights in water uti-
lization and control as herein author-
zed, to preserve and protect to the full-
est possible extent established and
potential uses, for all purposes, of the
water of the nation’s rivers.”

The basin-wide construction pro-
gram which is now being launched in
the Missouri River watershed very
definitely takes into consideration the
needs of all the people, including wa-
ter for consumption in cities and towns.
The Secretary of War is authorized

the act to make contracts with
states, municipalities, private concerns
or individuals, at such prices and on
such terms as he may deem reasonable,
for domestic and industrial uses for
surplus water that may be available at
any reservoir under control of the War
Department.

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ALO2ZAISIN

861

The job of harnessing the river sys-
tem in the Missouri basin has been as-
signed by the Congress to the Corps of
Engineers and the Bureau of Reclama-
tion, with the co-operation of the De-
partment of Agriculture and the Fed-
eral Power Commission.

The plan, sometimes referred to as
the Pick-Sloan plan, calls for the con-
struction of 105 reservoirs, 5 of them
on the main stem of the Missouri
River. These reservoirs will have a
combined storage capacity of approxi-
mately 100,000,000 acre-ft. of water.
In addition, the plan provides for con-
struction of flood protection levees
along both sides of the Missouri River
from Sioux City, Iowa, to the mouth
near St. Louis (Fig. 1).

But before giving a little broader
picture of the plan and what it is ex-
pected to accomplish this year, some of
the effects the program will have upon
municipal water supply should be dis-
cussed.

Missouri River Water Supplies

Numbers of engineers and water
works experts have had experience
with the varying moods of the “Big
Muddy.” They have had the job of
taking out the mud and silt, combatting
algae growth and removing taste and

odor, so that the people of their com-
munities would be supplied with safe,
palatable water. They have had to
worry about low water stages which
Bre aa to leave intakes high and
dry; floods which menaced _ water
_ works facilities; high turbidity of the
- water; shifting sand bars which threat-
ened to divert the flow from intakes;
and other problems, including stream
pollution.
Now it would be foolish to attempt
to convey the impression that the new
river development program will fully”

WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION V oll. 3

correct all these conditions. Water
works men know better. But the sys.
tem of reservoirs being built and
planned, together with the channel
stabilization work, will, in the author's
opinion, be of great assistance to wa-
ter works engineers in river cities
This plan when fully completed should
substantially improve the waters of the
Missouri for domestic consumption,

Survey of Flood and Drought
Problems

Recently the author made a survey
of problems confronting water works
engineers at cities along the Missourj
River. He found there was general
agreement that taste and odor are the
most difficult problems to handle jn
treatment of Missouri River water for
domestic use.

This survey sought primarily to de-
termine the effects of both low water
flow and flood conditions on the quality
of raw river water. It was found that
at low flow the water is harder and
carries a heavier concentration of dis-
solved minerals. Often at low stages
there are more algae, resulting in dis-
agreeable tastes and odors which are
difficult to remove. Sand bars are
more likely to endanger supply by di-
verting water from intakes.

It was the consensus that if low
water flow could be eliminated or mini-
mized, important benefits would accrue
to municipal water systems using Mis-
souri River water. This would insure
adequate water supply, reduce the cost
of chemical treatment and simplify the
problem of removing taste and odor.

Flood flows, the survey revealed, in-
crease the silt load, cause higher tur-
bidity and greater concentration of or-
ganic matter with disagreeable tastes
and odors and endanger intake struc

tures and pumping plants. —

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July 1946 MISSOURI RIVER 863

Substantial elimination of flood
fows, it was agreed, would decrease the
silt load, making possible less expen-
sive treatment of the water and reduc-
ing the load of settling basins. It
would protect intake structures from
damage and give the raw water a more
yniform character, thereby simplifying
the treatment problem.

Now what will be the effect of the
river development program on stream
flow in the Missouri River? The plan
provides for five large reservoirs on
the Missouri River in North and South
Dakota and others on the major tribu-
taries in the lower basin area. Oper-
ation of the multiple-purpose main
stem reservoirs will provide for release
of water at strategic intervals for navi-
gation, generation of power, flood con-
trol and public health sanitation re-
quirements. These releases will tend
to maintain a more normal flow in the
Missouri River.

Flood flows in the river definitely
can and will be regulated by the over-
all flood control plan on which work is
now beginning. The upstream reser-
voirs, with a storage capacity in excess
of 50,000,000 acre-ft. of water, will be
operated so as to hold back the flow in
the upper river at times of threatened
high water below.

The reservoirs will not eliminate
flash floods caused by storms occur-
ring below the Fort Randall Reservoir
on the Nebraska-South Dakota border.
But they will help considerably in mini-
mizing the frequency of floods and high
water stages downstream. The Mis-
souri River levees from Sioux City to
the mouth will control downstream
floods.

Another valuable service will be per-
formed by the reservoirs in connection
with water for domestic consumption.
They will catch and hold back a con-

siderable amount of silt. The river
picks up a substantial part of its silt
load above the Fort Randall Reservoir
location. The Yellowstone River alone
contributes 23.7 per cent of the silt
load in the river at Kansas City.

The release of water from the reser-
voirs during low water stages and
droughts not only will insure more
adequate supply at municipal water
works intakes, but will have a bene-
ficial effect on stream pollution.

Conditions at Kansas City

At Kansas City, Mo., the survey re-
vealed, the worst condition of river
water for conversion to city use occurs
following the winter months, when a
rise in the river follows long periods
of low flow. Extreme low water in
the Missouri River has two effects on
the water at Kansas City: (1) the wa-
ter is harder, requiring greater amounts
of lime and soda for softening purposes
and (2) at times of extreme low flow
the water becomes clearer, and there
is a greater possibility of profuse algae
growth which causes taste and odor
difficulties.

The survey disclosed that the elimi-
nation of extreme low flows would give
Kansas City a raw water of more uni-
form chemical characteristics which
would minimize the difficulty with taste
and odor due to algae growth.

High flows at Kansas City follow-
ing prolonged low river stages tend to
increase the bacterial load to be handled
by its treatment plant. When the river
is moderately high, the time of flow be-
tween points of pollution and Kansas
City is greatly reduced, and bacterial
pollution is of more consequence.

Turbidity difficult to remove at the —

Kansas City Water Works comes in
the early spring. It consists of col-
lodial matter and color which probably

i
|
Ivey
7
OTKS
Our!
2
1era!
the
e it
ality
that
an
dis
Ave <
dis
are
di-

864 JOURNAL—AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION Vol. 3

come from water which has stood on
decaying vegetation during winter
months. The maintenance of more
normal, regulated flow should be of
material aid in meeting this problem.

It seems significant that the Kansas
City plant experienced a fluctuation of
about 40 per cent per million gallons
in the cost of chemicals necessary to
treat the water supply between the
months of January and March 1946.
The cost during January was $12.82,
whereas in March it dropped to $7.40.

This difference in cost is attributed
almost entirely to the increased lime
and soda doses necessary to remove
dissolved minerals in the softening
process. It is interesting to note that
in January the average river stage at
Kansas City was 3.8 ft. whereas the
average during March was 7.9 ft.
With higher river stages, the dissolved
mineral content of raw water is re-
duced.

Kansas City, Kan., takes its water
from the Missouri River a few miles
upstream from the Kansas City, Mo.,
intake. During periods of low flow in
the river, which usually occur during
winter months there, the water supply
is much harder than during normal
flow. That city does not have a soften-
ing plant.

It was the opinion there that if low
water flow could be eliminated, a de-
crease in hardness would result. Also,
the experience at Kansas City, Kan., is
that, during flood stage in the river, the
silt load is considerably greater than
at normal stages and therefore requires
additional chemicals for its removal.
It was said that if a considerable
amount of the present silt load were
- eliminated, sedimentation and clarifica-
tion of the water would be easier and
less expensive at the Kansas City,
_Kan., plant.

Conditions at Omaha and Conngjj

Bluffs

At Omaha, Nebr. and Council Bluffs
lowa, which are on opposite sides of
the Missouri River, supply problems
are somewhat similar. The stage of
the river materially affected the avail.
ability of water on two occasions at
Omaha, threatening the source of sup-
ply in 1942 and in 1945. At one time
the water level was only 44 in. over
the intake sill. The city of Omaha was
forced to spend a quarter of a million
dollars in recent years to lower intake
structures due to a lowering of the
river level at its intake location.

Similarly, the Council Bluffs water
works faced an emergency situation in
1942. An extremely low river stage
caused the water level to fall below
the intake sill. The city was forced
to lay an emergency intake pipe several
hundred feet beyond the intake as a
temporary measure; and the city is
now building an entirely new pumping
station and intake works a half mile
upstream, at a cost of approximately
$400,000, to assure a constant water
supply.

The maintenance of a more normal
river flow, together with channel sta-
bilization works authorized for con-
struction by the Corps of Engineers,
will minimize many of these water
works engineering problems along the
Missouri River.

Flood stage in the river may be very
costly to municipal water supply sys-
tems due to damage of intake struc-
tures and flooding of pumping plants.
The flood of 1943 caused the city of
Omaha to be put to considerable ex-
pense since it was necessary to cut
trunk mains supplying East Omaha in
order to permit drainage after flood
water receded. It was necessary for
a time to truck water in to residents ol

cons
cess
S
facte
Mo.
the
take
wate
prot
secu
take
sand
flow
genc

that
witl
sup]
ther
at
stud
sten
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wate
high
t|
vert
at ti
suffi
ace:
(nat
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escaj

‘ol. 3s
inci]

luffs,
of
lems
e of
IS at
Sup-
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over
Was
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itake
the

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elow
rced
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ping
mile
ately
yater

rmal

that area whose plumbing was flooded,
with resultant danger of contaminated
supply.

If the reservoirs on the Missouri
River had been built and in operation,
there would have been no 1943 flood
at Omaha. The river reached a stage
of 22.45 ft. at Omaha. Engineering
studies showed that if the five main
stem reservoirs had been installed at
that time, the crest at Omaha would
have been well under 19 ft., which is
flood stage at that city.

It has been the experience at the
Council Bluffs Water Works that low
water flow in the river results in a
higher mineral content. Consequently,
the water is harder. If low water flows
were eliminated, officials said, the wa-
ter would contain less hardness and
dissolved minerals. If the present silt
load could be reduced, it would be of
considerable benefit in achieving suc-
cessful treatment.

Silt elimination also is an important
factor in water treatment at St. Joseph,
Mo. Low water flow in the river at
the St. Joseph Water Company’s in-
take not only affects the character of
water to some extent, but causes other
problems. It has caused difficulty in
securing sufficient water through in-
take facilities, resulting from shifting
sand bars which tend to divert the main
flow away from the intakes. Emer-
gency measures have been necessary
at times during the low flow to bring
sufficient water to the intakes.

Here again the regulation of stream
flow through operation of the upstream
reservoirs would be beneficial, lessen-
ing the danger of water shortage for
that city.

Conditions at St. Louis

The city of St. Louis had a narrow
escape from serious damage to its wa-

MISSOURI RIVER PROGRAM

ter supply
ago.

systems just a few

years
The experience was told to a_
congressional committee by Milton M.

Kinsey, President of the Board of Pub-
lic Service, City of St. Louis. The
committee then was considering the
authorization of the Missouri River
program.

St. Louis draws much of its water
supply from Missouri River sources. —
water

Its newest and most modern
works is at Howard Bend, about 15
miles northwest of St. Louis. The in-

vestment totals $8,000,000. The plant

has a capacity of 240 mgd., or about 40

per cent of the entire city supply.

A mile downstream is a privately
owned plant which supplies the sub-
urban area of St. Louis County. On
the west bank of the Mississippi 3 miles
below the mouth of the Missouri, St.
Louis has another plant representing

an investment of $15,000,000, with a-

capacity of 320 mgd. Because of the

location of intakes, this plant also de-

pends largely on the Missouri River.
The unprecedented floods on the

Missouri in 1943 and 1944 seriously —

endangered these plants. In the 1943
flood, the Howard Bend plaat was
saved only after the most exhausting

battle and by the narrowest margin.

When the flood crest was reached, there
was just 7 in. between the city of St.
Louis and an appalling disaster.

Grave as are the consequences of

floods to industry and agriculture, loss
of water supply by a great metropolitan
area of 2,000,000 persons is of even
greater portent. Once flood waters
inundate settling basins or clear wells
of a water works there is grave
that death-dealing bacteria and filth
can be
mote parts of the distribution system.
St. Louis escaped such a calamity in
1943 by the narrow margin of 7 in.

e danger

forced into even the most re- |

Sta-
con-
yater |
the
Sys-
TuC-
ants.
y of |
|
cut |
a in
|
for |
|

866

‘The flood control program for the
valley will provide protection extend-
ing down to and including the St.
Louis area against all floods of record

in the basin.

Survey of Sanitation Requirements

The problems of stream pollution
and sanitation have been given careful
consideration in the planning of the
comprehensive river development pro-
gram. Three years ago the services of
the U.S. Public Health Service were
secured in making a survey of sanita-
tion requirements.

That organization was asked to de-
termine the amount of water necessary
for release at the Fort Randall Reser-
voir to meet sanitation requirements in
the stream flow of the Missouri River.
That agency’s report recommends a
normal flow of 6,500 fps. at the Fort
Randall outlets, with a minimum of
5,500 fps. in extreme drought emer-
gencies.

The basic plan of operation of the
main stream reservoir system accord-
ingly was arranged to provide for re-
lease of sufficient water at all times to
maintain the prescribed flows for sani-
tation purposes.

The stream flow would increase with
distance downstream so that all cities
using river water for municipal supply
would be assured of a flow well in ex-
cess of minimum requirements of the
U.S.P.H.S. from a sanitation stand-
point.

In recent years, the flow at points
on the river has fallen below the nor-
mal figure set by the U.S.P.H.S. For
example, the average flow at Omaha
in January 1940 was 3,700 fps. The
flow dropped to the extreme low of
1,500 fps. at Kansas City on Jan. 10,
1937; however, this was due largely to
a winter ice jam in the river.

JOURNAL——-AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION | Vol

Ice jams also have been the cays
of local but sometimes serious floods
The river channel stabilization work
authorized in connection with the 9-4
navigation channel from Sioux City,
Iowa, to the mouth will aid elimina.
tion of ice jams. Ice jams usually form
on sand bars or shallow Crossings
These will be minimized when th
channel is fully improved as planned

Progress on Flood and Drought Con.
trol Plan

As already stated, the harnessing ,
the Missouri River system has begun
Construction 1s under way on several
projects in the co-ordinated plan t
conquer flood and drought in the Mis.
souri Valley.

Today the 7,000,000 people wh
make the valley their home have the
assurance that these twin problems are
being attacked on a broad comprehen-
sive basis. There is a well thought-
out plan to control and utilize all the
water resources of the basin for the
public benefit.

The Congress of the United States
has made it possible to put the pla
into execution this year by appropria-
tion of funds. The 1947 fiscal year
appropriation bill recently passed by
Congress provides approximately
000,000 for Corps of Engineer projects
in the basin. This is in addition t
$9,249,000 already made available in
the first deficiency appropriation bill
passed last December, which gives the
Corps of Engineers a total of $39,000-
000 for its work in the next year. It
will enable it to make a_ substantial
start on twelve projects, in addition t
channel improvement and maintenance
work in the Missouri River.

It is a program estimated to cost
ultimately $1,500,000,000. The con
struction phase will extend over 10

=
|
| flo
M
‘A.

Cause
floods,

work
e 9-ft

City,
imina-
y form
Sings
nthe
anned

; Con.

ing

everal
an te

Mis

whi
re. the
1s are
‘ehen-
rught-
Il the

the

States
plan
pria-
year
d by
$30,-
jects
mn
le in
1 bill
s the

1946

15 years. The basic principle in this
great program is control of floods and
storage of every available gallon of
water to tide the people over such ex-
tended drought periods as that ex-
perienced in the 1930's.

In addition to eliminating disastrous
floods, it will provide water for irriga-
tion of 4,500,000 acres of new land,
permit generation of about 10,000,000,-
000 kw. of power annually and increase
and improve municipal water supply.
It will stimulate soil erosion programs
and other agricultural development,
and it will encourage and benefit fish
and wildlife conservation and provide
large recreational areas around reser-

MISSOURI

voirs.

Construction work has been started,
or will start this spring or summer, on
They
are the Garrison Reservoir on the Mis-
souri River, 75 miles northwest of
Bismarck, N.D.; Fort Randall Reser-
voir, about 60 miles west of Yankton,
S.D.; Kanopolis Reservoir the
Smoky Hill River in Kansas; the
Cherry Creek Reservoir near Denver,
Colo.; and Harlan County Reservoir
on the Republican River in Nebraska.

In addition, work has started on two
flood control projects at Kansas City,
Mo., and Kansas City, Kan., and
construction will begin in June of flood
protection levees at Omaha and Coun-

five large reservoirs in the basin.

RIVER

PROGRAM

cil Bluffs, as well as several other local
flood control projects.

This represents a good start on a
big program, but it is only a start.
Those who have to do with forward-
looking programs of public service
know that there is—and must be—an
orderly and continuing pace of progress
toward a given goal. To fall below
that schedule means sacrifice of both
efficiency and economy.

The Missouri River development
program must be kept rolling through
adequate and continuing appropria-
tions, to insure the wisest expenditure
of the public funds and to bring to the
people of the valley the earliest possi-
ble benefits.

The Corps of Engineers is working
toward that end in closest possible co-
operation with the other federal agen-
cies interested in this comprehensive
development. It is working in har-
mony with the states. But its
many years of experience in civil works
it has been impressed again and again
with the fact that most important to
any successful public achievement is
the active support of informed public
opinion.

This is a program of far-reaching
importance to the entire Missouri Val-
ley. The public funds to be spent will
be an investment on which the people
will receive dividends for generations
to come.

over

HE utilization of our rivers in the
public interest is an old problem and
it appears to be one we will have with
us until the end of time. It is a prob-
lem requiring different solutions for
different rivers, and sometimes differ-
ent solutions for different sections of the
same river. It is a changing problem
and today’s solution may not fit to-
morrow’s requirements, because it is
likely that the public interest is served
today by facilities the public will find
insufficient or obsolete tomorrow. The
investment necessary for the utilization
of our rivers should, therefore, be
based on a sound engineering and
financial basis, in order that as much
-as possible of the public’s investment
be saved when changes are made in
operating policies and facilities.

Transportation and Waterways

From the beginning our rivers were
-used principally for transportation ;
their use for water supply, power, ir-
_rigation and sewage disposal followed

the development of the areas served.
_ The order of importance of these uses
varies, and, with the possible excep-
tion of sewage disposal, all inland rivers
cannot be used economically through-
out their length for all these purposes.

Their drainage areas vary in topog-
raphy and extent; their slopes and

_ their chemical characteristics are dif-
ferent; and the possible use or uses

Presented on May 9, 1946, at the Annual Conference, St. Louis, Mo.

The Economic Uses of

By E. B. Black
= : Cons. Engr., Black & Veatch, Kansas City, Mo.

made of one may have but little rela-
tion to another.

River passenger traffic is a thing of
the past, but there are areas where cer-
tain classes of freight are moved jn
competition with rail service. Steel
pipe moves from the Pittsburgh area
down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers
to Memphis, Tenn., and points south,
for final distribution by truck and rail,
The cost of transporting equipment
manufactured at or near the East Coast
to areas generally south of Missouri
and Kansas has in the past been based
on a combined water-rail rate, which
was less than a straight rail rate. This
made it possible for manufacturers us-
ing the combined rate to quote lower
delivered prices at points in those areas
than those manufacturers using only
rail transportation.

With the exception of some classes
of merchandise, speedy delivery from
point of origin to point of use is of
greater importance than in the past,
and of the utmost importance in the
immediate future. It may be several
years before the movement by air of
passengers, mail, express and certain
classes of freight will become a seri-

ous menace to the existing rail facili-
ties for such traffic. However, 74

hours from Ios Angeles to New York
and 22 hours from Kansas City to
Paris, for passenger and mail service,
is more than a mere indication of what

port
pres
Div:
Civi
ther

| an
an
pul
spe
the
Ne
gal
not
fret
tor
line
Wa
littl
est
he
con
frei
rate
Cot
nec
tral
tho:
will
| ing
faci
in f
base
Tels
unti
the

steel
area
vers
uth,
rail.
nent
Oast
our!
ised
hich
This

us-
wer
reas
ynly

Ses
rom
of
ast,
the

oral
of

July 1946 weer

the public desires. There can be no
doubt but that the speed of such traffic
is of great importance, and present rail
and air facilities are being developed
and expanded in order to meet the
public's desire for more and more
speed.

Today air lines load certain classes
of freight in Kansas City and deliver
them the next day in Los Angeles or
New York. California fruits are
gathered today and delivered tomorrow
by air to points in eastern Texas. The
Santa Fe Railroad has recently an-
nounced the establishment of an air
freight service to operate in the terri-
tory now served by that company’s
lines.

Water vs. Rail Costs

Perhaps these remarks seem to have
little connection with the public’s inter-
est in river transportation, but there can
be little doubt about the necessity for
continuing rail service for handling
freight, and for the public’s paying the
rates fixed by the Interstate Commerce
Commission for that service. If it is
necessary also to provide inland river
transportation for freight service in
those limited areas where such serv-
ice can be made available, the public
will certainly be interested in balanc-
ing the cost of its investment in river
facilities against its savings, if any,
in freight rates—rates which must be
based on the cost of operation of two
ireight transportation systems, at least
until one of the two, either the rail-
roads or the inland rivers, retires from
the field.

In a symposium on “Water Trans-
portation vs. Rail Transportation” (1),
presented in 1936 by the Waterways
Division of the American Society of
Civil Engineers, Rufus W. Putnam,
then President of the Maritime Engi-

OUR INLAND

WATERWAYS 869

neering Corporation of Chicago, pre-
sented a paper on “The Value of Wa-
ter Transportation,” and S. L. Wonson,
then Assistant Chief Engineer of the
Missouri-Pacific Railroad, presented
one on “The High Cost of Inland Wa-
ter Transportation.” In these two
papers, both of which were corrected
to 1937, appears a great deal of the
comparative information on the value
and cost of water transportation which —
is of interest in this discussion. In
justification of water transportation,
Putnam says:

Many notable papers have been pub-—
lished in an attempt to prove economic —
justification for many of the waterway
projects that have been undertaken in the —
United States. Possibly as many con-—
tributions have been made on behalf of —
rail transportation. The waterway papers
have been discussed and criticized by rail-_

road advocates, while the railway point _

of view has been argued against by those |
favoring the waterways. One would —
think that all points for both sides of the ©
controversy had been covered time and ©
time again; that there was nothing more>
to be said, and that nothing could be ©
gained by prolonging the argument; and —
yet the strife appears to continue; water-

ways are accused of “robbing” the tax- —
payer and of taking trafic away from

their competitors, whereas the railroads —

are alleged to be engaged in the nefarious.

practice of reducing rates wherever water |
competition exists and making up the loss

at the expense of their customers located |

where the advantages of water competi-_
tion are not available. Of course, this at-—
titude is understandable when it is real-_

ized that each side is attempting to protect _

its own interests; but the results are not —
necessarily along the lines of better un- —
derstanding or of constructive accom-—

plishments for the public at large. *

And again Putnam states that the |
main water transportation routes in the
Mississippi Valley will have cost the

s
rela-
( f
1 in
eri-
“tli-
7}
ork
to
ice,
hat

870 JOURNAL—AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION

Com er und Rail Traffic Millions of Do
: Water Traffic Carried by Comparison on Basis of || Comparison if Waterway
Railways Serving the Present Waterway Traffic Equals a Single
Same Points Improvements Track Railway
Rail | Water Rail | Water | Rail Water
Interest WS 44.0 35 52 17.5 52.0
Maintenance of Way 4.0 8.0 36 15 25.0 12.5
and Structures
Operating Charges 22.0 | 13.75 162 100 112.5 78.8
Toran 43.5 65.75 233 | 167 155.0 143.3

United States about $186,000 per mile
when completed ; that maintenance, in-
cluding the operation of the locks and
movable dams, will cost approximately
$3,000 per mile; that the capacity of
these water highways for carrying
freight will vary; that open rivers will
be able to carry practically an unlimited
tonnage but the canalized sections will
be limited by the rapidity with which
carriers may pass through the locks or
highest lift in those sections. He cites
the traffic from the Lower Mississippi
River and the Missouri River to and
from the Upper Mississippi and Ilh-
nois waterway system, which will be
limited by the capacity of the lock in
the Mississippi River at Alton, III.
Through traffic between Chicago and
the valley may not exceed the capacity
of the lock at Lockport at the lower end
of the Chicago drainage canal, and the
capacity of the Upper Ohio River will
be determined by that of the locks be-
low Pittsburgh. Single locks at these
three critical locations will impose
limits between approximately 20,000,-
000 and 30,000,000 tons per year re-
spectively. Twin locks would more
than double the capacity of those sec-
tions of the waterways at a compara-
tively small cost.

Putnam states that modern railroa¢
construction costs in the Mississipp
Valley vary between $50,000 to $70,00
per mile of single track, and that main.
tenance of way and structures costs on
the average from $2,000 to $3,000 per
mile annually under heavy traffic. He
also states that the annual traffic ca
pacity of a single-line railroad varies
between 20,000,000 and 30,000,00
tons, depending on the class of freight
predominating. From this he drew the
conclusion :

It is thus apparent that inland water-
way construction is much less _ flexible
than is the case with railroad construc-
tion, and without regard to capacity
it costs more to build and _ maintain
Furthermore, railroad dis ances between
given points are generally shorter than
those by water, which is an additional
credit to railroad transportation when
construction and maintenance costs art
under consideration.

Putnam advises that the cost of main-
taining equipment, plus fuel, supplie
and wages, on Middle West railroads
averages close to 4 mills per ton-mile
Interest on investment in equipment
and its depreciation varies from about
0.6 mill per ton-mile for a load factor
of 100 per cent to as much as 1.5 milks

pare
larg
tati
use
the
sum
conc

be d
servi
the

river
In th
$22,
this
vestn
purpt
made
viole
of in
servi
locate

miles

(]
dustr
twee!
prepe
Obje

of im

-
Vol.
per
ran;
twe
Cot
tion
mil
exc
lot
wal
Jus
a
|

he
SSIppi
0,00
main-
its on
0 per

He
aries
0,001
eight
w the

vater-
»xible
struc-
acit}
ntain
weer
than
whet

plies
mile.
ment
bout
actor
mills

per ton- mile when the load factor is 40
per cent. Total unit for this
range Of load factors therefore lie be-
tween 4.5 and 5.5 mills per ton-mile.
Comparable costs for water transporta-
tion vary from 1.25 to 3 mills per ton-
mile, which must be corrected for the
excess Of water distances over rail.
Total costs for interest, maintenance of
way and structures, and
charges are shown in Table 1.

costs

Justification for Waterways

Putnam’s finding is that “it is ap-
parent, therefore, that the country at
large is paying more for its transpor-
tation in the amount of about $22,000,-
000 per year on account of the present
use of main inland waterway routes in
the Mississippi Valley.” After a re-
sume of intangible values, however, he
concludes that:

. the interior of a great country may
be developed to best advantage by pre-
serving for the use of the general public
the free water highways of its great
rivers even at some expense, if necessary.
In the writer’s opinion the price of about
$22,000,000 per year is a small one for
this country to pay if, in making this in-
vestment, it accomplishes the multiple
purpose of salvaging large expenditures
made in previous years, or preventing a
violent readjustment in the distribution
of industries and population, and of pre-
serving a group of minor “sea bases”
located on a secondary coast line 7,000
miles in length.

(The “violent readjustment” of in-
dustries and population came about be-
tween 1940 and 1943 while we were
preparing for war.)

Objections to Waterways

Wonson calls attention to a number
of important matters :

Committee,
i to the President, states, in part :

WATERWAYS

In its first report of 1910, the National |
Waterways Commission pointed out that —
expenditures on waterway improvement —
for the purpose of regulating railroads or —
reducing rates were not justified by either
reason or experience.

The scope of railroad regulation has
been extended and strengthened in
recent years as to justify the conclusion
of these two authorities. The subject is
treated by the National Transportation
which, in its report of 1933 _

“The development of ares ition and of ©
new methods of transport makes it un-
necessary for further to
create and foster competition with or
among railroads as a defense against —
monopoly. That is an expensive and in- |
effective attempt to do indirectly what
Government has shown its ability to do
directly. Regulation is sufficient.

Regulation of the railroads “has been
practiced long enough and sufficiently ex-
tended to prove that it dominates com-

the extent that the monopoly inherent in
the railroad franchise was a menace, it is
of the utmost importance to recognize
that current railroad regulation safely
controls it.

“Insofar as government policies have
been designed, by Federal intervention, to
create and maintain competition with or
among railroads as a defense against
monopoly, they should be abandoned as
wasteful and unnecessary. Regulation
is sufficient.”

Wonson states that a_ satisfactory
transportation service, one that is to
the highest practicable degree adequate,
efficient and economical, is a_ public
necessity. The transportation perform-
ance of the major rivers of the Mis-
sissippi Basin—the Ohio, Missouri and
Mississippi—covering river traffic in
1935 between Pittsburgh, Pa.; Min-
neapolis, Minn. ; Sioux City, Iowa; and
New Orleans, La., is shown in Table 2

July 1946 OUR INLAD 871.
eTwa
ingle
ater
2.0
8.8

TABLE 2 a

Comparison of Freight Revenue Transported

Route Freight Transported

mil, tons mil. ton-miles
Railways, 1929 2,452 447,322
Railways, 1935 1,427 282,037
Waterways, 1935* 41 5,487

* Includes materials used in river improve-
ment work as well as materials rafted.

Wonson also observes that rail
carriers are subject to restrictive legis-
lation and regulation, originally pur-
porting to be in the public interest and
now considered by many to extend
into the field of management, whereas
_ river carriers are largely free to pursue
_ such policies and practices as may seem

to them appropriate, and they are
further enabled by acts of government
to offer their service for a charge which
fails, by a substantial margin, to cover
its total cost. In other words, the
users of the service pay a part of the
costs and the taxpayers pay the re-
mainder.

Wonson states that the total cost of
rail transportation to the public may
be measured by the charge for the
service, the freight revenue. In 1935
the average charge per ton-mile of reve-
nue freight transported by Class I rail
carriers in the United States was 9.9
mills, of which 0.7 mill was directly
refunded to the public as taxes. |

Volume of River Traffic

Wonson directs particular attention
to the Missouri River and states that

Missouri’s natural channel condi-
tions are particularly unfavorable for
navigation, and its location upstream
from Kansas City is equally unfavor-
able for the needs of traffic. He also
states that, disregarding circuity and
any expenditure on the Fort Peck proj-
ect, the cost to the federal taxpayers

872 JOURNAL—AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION _

of river transportation between Sioux
City and the mouth is 22¢ per ton-mile
of total tonnage and the maintenance
cost alone is 4¢ per ton-mile. In 1929
more than 99 per cent of the total top.
nage was material for river improve.
ment work. In later years, the per-
centage is simply stated as “large.” Ip
1935, however, rafted piling, stone and
sand made up 84 per cent of the total
tonnage.

The Mississippi Valley Committee
of the Public Works Administration
found that the total construction costs
of improvements under way in 1935
($250,000,000) had very doubtful jus-
tification, since the 3.5 per cent inter-
est rate alone would require a ton
mileage of about 43 times the present
in order to reduce the interest cost to
l¢ per ton-mile.

As to the possibility that the Mis-
souri River will ever be able to justify
this expenditure, or any substantial
part of it, the Committee comments:

Assuming that the more optimistic esti-
mates of future traffic on the river will
be realized, the savings to shippers which
would result from free operation of the
waterway would exceed by only a small
margin the annual charge to be borne by
the public for maintenance and interest
on the investment. . . . Most current esti-
mates of prospective tonnage are exceed-
ingly liberal, and if the present traffic on
the section below Kansas City may be ac-
cepted as in any degree indicative of
future prospects, the probability of those
estimates ever being realized, even on a

free waterway, is very slight. 2

Flood Control Act of 1944

The Flood Control Act of 1944 pro-
vides “the use for navigation, in con-
nection with the operation and mainte-
nance of such works herein authorized
for construction, of waters arising im

July

stat
nine
sucl
bent
futu
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ance
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ton-
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July 1946 a OUR INLAND

states lying wholly or partly west of the
ninety-eighth meridian shall be only
such use as does not conflict with any
beneficial consumptive use, present or
future, in states lying wholly or partly
west of the ninety-eighth meridian, of
such waters for domestic, municipal,
stock water, irrigation, mining or in-
dustrial purposes.”

The act provides, among a lengthy
list of proposed waterway developments
in river basins throughout the entire
United States, authorization for a
“Comprehensive Plan” for the ultimate
development of the Missouri River
Basin from its source to its mouth.
The Comprehensive Plan is referred to
as being the co-ordinated results of
separate reports from the Corps of En-
gineers and the Bureau of Reclama-
tion. The first of these reports is em-
bodied in House Document 475, 78th
Congress, Second Session, as a recom-
mendation from the Chief of Engineers
to the Secretary of War. It would
consist of flood control, some irriga-
tion, the development of hydro-electric
power and other uses of the river from
Sioux City to the mouth. It is esti-
mated by the Corps of Engineers that
its plan would cost a total of $481,600,-
000 in addition to previously authorized
flood control projects. These previ-
ously authorized projects relate to the
comprehensive plan for flood protec-
tion of the Lower Mississippi River as
contained in Committee Document No.
1, 75th Congress, First Session, and
total $171,000,000. In a letter ad-
dressed to the Secretary of War from
the Bureau of the Budget concerning
House Document 475, Harold D.
Smith, the Director of the Bureau,
states that the $481,600,000 proposed
by the Corps of Engineers would be in
addition to the $171,000,000, to make
a total of $652,600,000.

WATERWAYS 873.
7

The Bureau of Reclamation sub-—
mitted its report through the Congress ©
in Senate Document 191, 78th Con- _
gress, Second Session. This report
also concerns the Missouri River Basin —
and the Comprehensive Plan is in-
cluded therein for irrigation, flood con-.
trol, navigation, power, recreation, and
other uses and is estimated to costa
total of $1,257,645,700. Again, the ©
projects included in the plan were to—
be in addition to previously authorized —
river development, so that the same |
$171,000,000 authorized under Com-
mittee Document No. 1, 75th Congress,
First Session, should be added to the ©
total estimated project cost, making a
total of $1,428,645,700.

In reviewing the report of the Recla- _
mation Bureau in conjunction with ©
House Document 475, the Senate Com-_
mittee discovered certain controversial —
points wherein there appeared to be —
duplication of effort between the two
governmental agencies ; consequently a_
special committee was formed consist-
ing of two Representatives, two Sena-
tors, the Chief of Engineers and a Com- _
missioner of the Bureau of Reclama-
tion. This committee was directed to |
attempt to co-ordinate the two reports. —

Senate Document 247, 78th Con-
gress, Second Session, is the result of
that committee’s work and represents |
a co-ordinated Comprehensive Plan for
the Missouri River Basin. The com-
mittee found that the Bureau of Recla-—
mation was not opposed to that part
of the Engineer Corps’ plan having to |
do with flood control below Sioux City |
and, therefore, uses that part of the-
engineer Corps’ plan for the Lower
Missouri River. The committee found
that the Bureau of Reclamation plan |
for the Upper Missouri River was not
included in the Army Engineer Corps _
plan and, since no discrepancy oc- —

on
ac-
of
ose
na

ro-
te-
ed
in

874

curred between the reports in that re-
gard, the bureau’s plan was adopted
for that part of the river. The inter-
mediate river basin development con-
sisted of the location and design of
various reservoir projects for irriga-
tion, navigation, flood control and the
like. It was these reservoirs that pro-
vided the points of contention. After
due consideration, the committee
adopted such reservoirs from the two
plans as were determined to serve the
needs of the area and utilize the po-
tentialities of the river most fully. In
effect, the net result of the committee’s
recommendation to Congress was the
addition of $152,700,000 to the Bureau
of Reclamation’s Comprehensive Plan.
Thus, the total estimated cost faced
by Congress when it authorized the co-
ordinated Comprehensive Plan for the
Missouri River Basin in the Flood
Control Act of 1944 was $1,580,000,-
O00.

It should be noted that in the letters
of transmittal to Congress for each of
the separate departmental reports, the
Board of Review recommended that,
since the Army Engineers’ estimates
were based on price levels of the period
1938-1939 and the Bureau of Reclama-
tion’s estimates were based on Jan. 1,
1940, prices, a revaluation of those esti-
mates would be necessary at such time
as construction was actually contem-
plated. The rise in construction costs
since 1940 for works comparable to
those included in the plan is evidenced
by nationally recognized indexes and
by testimony in appropriation hearings
in both the House and Senate, and will
vary from a minimum of 40 per cent
to a maximum of 70 per cent. Ii
the total estimated costs given above

are increased by 50 per cent, the total
for the development of the Missouri

hich has already been
d

River Basin, w

JOURNAL—AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION

Vol, 38

authorized by Congress, will be $2.
370,000,000.

Appropriations authorized by the
Flood Control Act of 1944 include $2.
000,000 for the use of the Corps of
Engineers under the jurisdiction of the
Chief of Engineers for the initiation of
that part of the plan which will come
under the direct jurisdiction of the
Corps of Engineers, and $2,000,000 to
the Department of the Interior for the
initiation of that part of the plan under
the jurisdiction of the Bureau of Recla
mation,

The Missouri River is 2,460 miles ir
length from its source to its junctior
with the Mississippi, about 17 miles
above St. Louis. The drainage area in-
cludes 519,635 square miles in the
United States, or about 18 per cent of
the area of the continental United
States, and 9,715 square miles in
Canada. The drainage area is divided,
314,617 square miles above and 214-
733 square miles below Sioux City.
These areas in the United States in
1945 supported a population of ap-
proximately 6,800,000—about 5 per
cent of our total population—all of
which was concentrated in the eastern
one-third of the watershed.

One of the major interests in this
area above Sioux City is water for ir-
rigation. The Bureau of Reclamation
reported having 4,185,000 acres of ir-
rigated land in the entire basin (De-
cember 1943), with irrigation works
serving this land totaling $200,000-
000, of which $61,753,000 was in fed-
eral projects. Studies by the Recla-
mation Bureau indicate that an addi-
tional 4,400,000 acres of land in the
basin could be irrigated, 2,300,000 acres
from the main stream and the re
mainder from its tributaries. All ol
this, of course, requires the construc

tion of 90 reservoirs in addition to the

pro
trol
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July 1946
1342 water storage reservoirs now in
the basin, including 11 that principally
serve for power generation.

The final combined plan of the Corps
of Engineers and the Bureau of Recla-
mation calls for the development of 22
hydro-electric power plants with an in-
stalled capacity of 1,154,500 kw.; five
of these plants with a capacity of 396,-
000 kw. would be used for pumping
water for irrigation. The remaining
17, operating subject to regulation for
flood control, are expected to produce
3,800,000,000 kwhr. firm power an-
nually for sale.

Arkansas River Development

Among other inland river projects
provided for under the 1944 flood con-
trol act and of particular interest in the
mid-section of the United States is the
proposed development of the Arkansas
River and its tributaries, in Arkansas
and Oklahoma, for navigation, hydro-
electric power and other purposes.

As recommended to the Chief of En-
gineers by the Division Engineer and
the Survey Board, the “Multiple-Pur-
pose Plan” for the Arkansas River
Valley consists of a dependable naviga-
tion channel from the Mississippi River
to Catoosa, Okla.; a system of hydro-
electric power projects ; and flood con-
trol storage at the proposed Eufaula
Reservoir on the Canadian River. It
is assumed for the purpose of evaluat-
ing the plan that all presently author-
ized or approved flood control projects
on tributaries of the Arkansas River
would have been completed and_ in
operation at the time when the Mul-
tiple-Purpose Plan could be completed.

The recommended plan includes a
dependable 9-ft. navigation channel
irom the Mississippi River to the mouth
of the Verdigris River, and up the
Verdigris River to Catoosa, Okla., con-

INLAND WATERWAYS

875

sisting of a series of slack water pools |
formed by low-head dams and locks. —
There would be 23 navigation locks
and dams, together with channel cut-
offs and enlargements, canals, bank-
protection works, and snagging and
dredging. Navigation locks would
also be provided in the four main-stem
power dams at Webbers Falls, Okla,
and Short Mountain, Ozark and Dar-—
danelle in Arkansas. Sediment control —
reservoirs at Blackburn, Marmford,
Taft and Eufaula in Oklahoma would |
reduce channel maintenance to that ex-_
perienced on the Ohio and Upper Mis-_
sissippi rivers insofar as sediment af-_
fects that maintenance. 4

The navigation channel and locks |
on the main stem would accommodate |
tows and be similar in design and oper-
ation to those on the Upper Mississippi _
River. The locks and channel on the—
Verdigris would be smaller and ac- |
commodate four tank-barge tows.

Stream flow regulation is necessary
to the channel up the Verdigris and ©
would be provided by the releases of —
water passing through the proposed |
power generation facilities at Oologah, _
Okla.

Commercial navigation is assumed
to cease when excessive velocities pre-
vail during flood stages ; however, esti-
mates of prospective commerce and the
savings based thereon are based on the
assumption that a 9-ft. channei would
be available for year-round navigation _
and that adequate terminal facilities
and transfer facilities would be pro-—
vided by local interests. The estimated
terminal charges assessed against pro--
spective movements of freight are as-
sumed to be adequate to build, oper-—
ate, maintain and amortize the terminal
and transfer facilities, and therefore —

none is included in the evaluation of
the justification for the plan.

9 4

TABLE 3
Costs of Multiple-Purpose Plan

Navigation Only

* The Corps of Engineers made no break-
down showing value of power for four main-
stem plants. Figures here used are FPC
(December 1944) value of power and Black &
Veatch determination of the dependable
power in these main-stem projects.

The annual benefits to be derived are
based on the savings in transportation
costs afforded over the present rail-
pipeline-truck system. Traffic surveys
indicated that an annual movement of
9,015,000 tons of commerce over the

Arkansas River would be reasonably
expected, and an average saving in
_ transportation charges of $2.17 per ton
is estimated for prospective commerce.

The Arkansas-Oklahoma Special In-
- terstate Water Resources Committee,
joint-state authorized body, has re-

JOURNAL—AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION

Total Annual Costs $19,545,000
Total Annual Benefits 19,740,000
Ratio 1.01
Navigation and Flood Control
(Eufaula)
Total Annual Costs 19,714,200
Total Annual Benefits 20,819,700
Ratio 1.06
Navigation and Flood Control
and Four Main-Stem Power ee
Projects
Total Annual Costs:
Navigation $19,545,000
Power 3,152,000
Flood Control 169,200 22,866,200
Total Annual
Benefits: i
Navigation 19,740,000
Flood Control 1,079,700
Power 2,406,200 23,225,900
Ratio 1.016
Main-Stem Power Projects
Total Annual Costs | 3,152,000
Total Annual Benefits 2,406,200*
Ratio 0.76

Vol. 3A

cently concluded that the estimate oj
prospective commerce was grossly yn.
derestimated and that the estimates oj
cost. for construction were overesti-
mated.

Intangible benefits not evaluated jp
monetary form include the saving of
agricultural lands and levee improve-
ments by bank stabilization, enhance-
ment of property values, impetus to de-
velopment of natural resources, and
increased activity in industry and trade
in the Arkansas River tributary area
The navigation channel is expected te
attain national value during war emer
gency when other forms of transporta-
tion need relief, and such an inland
waterway would be protected from out-
side attack.

The Multiple-Purpose Plan includes
proposed power generation facilities, at
Oologah, Webbers Falls, Tenkiller
Ferry and Eufaula in Oklahoma and
Short Mountain, Ozark and Dardanelle
in Arkansas, which would operate as a
system with the previously authorized
three-reservoir system on the Grand
( Neosho) River, at Pensacola, Mark-
ham Ferry and Fort Gibson, Okla.
Such a system is estimated to be capa-
ble of producing a dependable capacity
of 268,000 kw. and an annual average
output of 1,520,400,000 kwhr. more
than the three-reservoir system.

The annual benefits to accrue to the
power features of the plan will be the
value of the above capacity and annual
output delivered at the market. The
Federal Power Commission has made
a comprehensive market study of the
entire southwestern region and_ has
compiled the results of the study in a
report dated December 1944. The
evaluation of hydro-electric power in
the Southwest, as given in this report,
is more recent than that submitted to
the Chief of Engineers in the Survey

876 —
po
Su
ex
the
:
ol :

e of
un
=< ot

esti-

d in
g of
“Ove-
ince-
de-
and
rade
area,
d to
mer-
orta-
land
out-

caller
and
nelle
as a
rized
rand
ark-
‘apa-
acity
rage
nore

the
the
nual
The
nade
has
in a
The
r in
port,
d to
rvey

July 1946

Report and the Multiple-Purpose Plan.
The FPC recognizes that all the pro-
posed power could not be absorbed by
the market on an economical basis un-
less the installations are scheduled to
be ready for operation only when there
would be a demand from the market.
Such a schedule as proposed by FPC
extends to 1965, and even by that date
a market has not been found for ap-
proximately 110,000 kw. of installed
capacity proposed by the Survey Re-
rt.
The unit capacity and energy values
as estimated by the FPC are based on
an analysis of equivalent high-efficiency
modern steam-electric generating plant
costs. In other words, the value of
hydro-electric power and energy to the
area is assumed to be no more than the
cost of producing equivalent quanti-
ties in modern steam-electric plants.
The estimated “federal first cost” of
the Multiple-Purpose Plan is reported
as $523,783,000, and the total federal
annual charges are estimated at $24,-
336,900, plus $61,000 annually for non-
federal increased costs of maintenance
and operation of bridges and other ex-
isting improvements. The Corps of
Engineers’ survey report breaks these
costs down as shown in Table 3.

OUR INLAND WATERWAYS

Two of the projects included in the _
Flood Control Act of 1944 have been |
cited for the purpose of showing that
the utilization of our rivers in the pub-
lic interest creates a sizable financial
debt which the public has to pay. The
Flood Control Act of 1944 provides for
flood protection and irrigation projects _
which will definitely be of great bene- |
fit to the public at large, and there are, |
of course, other minor developments _
incidental to these major projects —
which may also operate to the best in-
terests of the public. But under the
same act, millions of the public’s dol- __
lars may be so invested that they can-—
not operate in the public’s interest. .

The public pays the bill for the mil- |
lions of dollars invested in public utili- —
ties through rates, through ownership _
of securities, and in many other ways,
and due consideration should be given —
to the duplication of utilities, such as
transportation, which can never be
handled by inland rivers as we expect —
it to be handled by rail, by pipeline, by —

truck and by air. i

1. Symposium: Water Transportation vs.

Rail Transportation. Proc. A.S.C.E.,
103: 1279 (1938).

udes
'S, al

ene this country’s beginnings, our
rivers have been used, and misused,
in the public interest. Our present
economic and social situation requires
that they be used, controlled and pro-
tected in a higher degree than hereto-
: fore. It is clearly in the public interest
that this be done. The public interest
requires further that:

1. What is to be done be shown in
advance, be economically justified.

The best of several imaginable

alternate plans be followed.

3. Some consideration
given to equitable distribution of
among the beneficiaries.
At the present time, there are two
forms of administrative procedure
under which the higher utilization of
our streams may be undertaken from
the national level—it may be done by
existing federal agencies, or by the
creation of a federal corporation or au-
thority.
_ Each form of procedure has its ad-
herents, strongly organized into pres-
sure blocs, all of which have in com-
_ mon the objective of getting in their
_ particular basin as extensive facilities
as possible at the expense of the federal
er.
the viewpoint of
treasury, the difference between the
procedures is not too great. From the
viewpoint of good technical engineer-
ing, the difference is not significant.

should be
the

the federal

W. W. Horner
Cons. Engr., Horner and Shifrin, St. Louis, Mo.
Presented on May 9, 1946, at the Annual Conference, St. Louis, Mo.

The Army Corps of Engineers, the
Bureau of Reclamation, and the Ten-
nessee Valley Authority have all built
cxcellent structures.

But, there is a difference from the
side of political and economic philoso-
phy and it is this viewpoint that will be
discussed here.
River Valley Authorities

Special public corporations are not a
new thing in this country. We have
had for some generations such things
land drainage dis-
All of these

as school districts,
tricts and sewer districts.
are “authorities,” in a created
for the specific purpose of caring
for one specific functional public prob-
lem and with a companion general im-
plication of distributing the cost equi-
tably among the beneficiaries of the
project. Such corporations are set up
to operate within specific geographic
boundaries, concomitant with the back-
ground of the problem; such, for ex-
ample, as the geographic area within
which school children could be eco-
nomically transported to a single point,
or a homogeneous area of low-lying
land requiring drainage.

The outstanding extension of the
field of such public corporations to
river valleys was the Miami Conserv-
ancy District. Here the drainage basin
naturally defined the area of the prob-
lem. <A single function, that of pro-

sense,

878

fun
prot
tant
tric
long
state
for

the

tribt
bene
was
ticed
nati
Was

facil
terec
resol
all cc
at la
pre

the

have
the |
crue ;
Auth
Th
to ha
that

grade
looki1
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From
flowe
bill w
patert
it to v
ucts
variot
social

__ Utilization of Rivers in the Public Interest \
=) id
=
|_|

the
uilt

the
OSO-

l be

1046

yiding flood reduction and protection,
was involved. The authority was given
full power to carry out the project and
to distribute the cost.

When the TVA was set up, the idea
had to be extended from the single
function to three major ones: flood
protection, navigation and, an impor-
tant addition, production of hydro-elec-
tric power. Also the Authority was no
longer in a single state, and the inter-
state situation made it clearly a matter
for the federal government. Finally,
the proposal did not involve the dis-
tribution of the cost among the direct
beneficiaries. The first reason for this
was that flood control, as then prac-
ticed by the federal government, was a
national responsibility, and the same
was true of the provision for navigation
facilities. Hydro-electric power en-
tered in for conservation of energy
resources and reduction of the over-
all cost to the United States taxpayers
at large. As thus far discussed, the
project still remained fairly well within
the field of engineering economics,
and arguments in its defense might
have been based on annual costs and
the benefits wherever they might ac-
crue; but the powers and duties of the
Authority did not stop at that point.
The other provisions of the bill seem
to have been based on an assumption
that the Tennessee Valley had a de-
graded population, one incapable of
looking after itself and probably in-
capable of improving its condition even
in light of the developments proposed.
From this assumption apparently
flowed the further provisions of the
bill which gave the Valley Authority a
paternalistic position, which permitted
it to use the power to process the pre xl-
ucts of the region and to enter into
various forms of industry, business and
social government. It was these mat-

UTILIZATION OF RIVERS

ters that permitted it to be character-—
ized as a “noble experiment.” ’

TVA Precedent oT;

The Authority has been operated |
now for a number of years at the ex-_
pense to the federal taxpayers of about |
a billion dollars, and has greatly bene-
fitted the people of the valley. As a_
“noble experiment,” it may be classified _
as a distinct success. The question —
now before the Congress and the peo-—
ple of the United States whom they —
represent is whether it is in the public
interest to duplicate this form of or-—
ganization and procedure in all of the
other major river valleys of the United
States. Bills have been introduced in
Congress subdividing the country into
valley authorities. Specific bills have
been introduced for certain valleys, and
of these the Arkansas, the Missouri
and the Columbia have received the
greatest support. In general, the au-
thority in these new bills is granted
even wider powers of operation than
in the original Tennessee Valley Act.

In considering the merit of this pro-
posal, one might examine first the situ-
ation in these valleys from the eco-
nomic and viewpoint to
whether it parallels the early conditions
in the Tennessee. The author par-
ticipated in the preparation of the Ar-
kansas Valley report, which was the
dying effort of the National Resources
Planning Board. His phase of par-
ticipation was concerned with water
use and control; yet inevitably he
found himself discussing with the plan-
ners desirable proposals for revisions
of land use and population problems.
In the course of these discussions, there
appeared an assumption by the plan-
ners that the people of the Ozarks also
represented a depressed population ele-
ment, which could only be saved by a

social see

||
jui-
the
Int,
ing
ob
TO-

880

high degree of paternalism, and as a
result there was a definite tendency to
introduce into the Arkansas Valley
Plan extensive proposals for the reset-
tlement of population. The author has
never found the Ozark people to be of
that class; in general, they are thrifty
and self-respecting and maintain an
entirely decent standard of living, even
though they do not have all of the com-
forts of the city dweller.

Primarily, the valley authority argu-
ment has centered around the Colum-
bia basin and the Missouri Valley.
Quite naturally the author is more
familiar with the arguments regarding
the latter. In this valley there is no
depressed or degraded population. On
the contrary, a relatively good eco-
nomic standard has prevailed over the
whole area, with the possible exception
of that which existed temporarily in a
belt of the western plains, due to a
combination of the drought and_ the
depression of the 1930's.

The Missouri Valley does have a
flood problem which must be solved.
A considerable element within the val-
ley believes the provision of navigation
facilities up to Sioux City, Iowa is es-
sential to the future of the area. This
_ theory the author personally has never
found convincing, but a hundred mil-
lion dollars has already been spent
—onit. In the West there is a real need
for improved water supplies for irriga-
tion, and also in the West and in the
_ Ozarks there are possibilities for the
development of hydro-electric power.

Over very much of the area, there is
an urgent need for the application of
soil conservation measures and of im-
_ proved land use, but this is in no way
specifically related to the Missouri
Valley as a region.

Throughout the Missouri River sys-
tem, measures for the control of stream

-JOURNAL—AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION

Vol. 38

pollution and preservation of water
quality are essential. Because of the
general lower population density, this
situation is not so critical as in the
eastern United States, but it is jm.
portant. However, the problem is that
of middle-western streams in general,
and is being as well handled under ex.
isting state administration, under inter-
state agreements, and with federal co-
operation, as it would be likely to be
under any other administrative system,

The utilization of the streams for
urban water supply will be somewhat
improved by any regulation of the river
that increases low flow and _ reduces
floods, but such improvement would be
incidental to the major objectives.

Water development for recreational
use is also important in the Missouri
River system. These streams in their
natural state offer recreational advan-
tages only in the Ozark and the Rocky
Mountain areas. In those two areas,
the problem of recreational water is
largely one of preserving existing re-
sources to the greatest possible extent.
In the great plains section of the valley,
consideration of recreational use of im-
pounded water would appear to be in
the public interest.

There is an obvious need for the de-
velopment, protection and control of
the waters of the Missouri Valley, but
there is in no justification, in the au-
thor’s opinion, for the establishment in
the Missouri Valley of an authority of
the autocratic paternalistic type. As
this is the only type of authority which
has been given consideration, the av-
thor believes that a valley authority for
the Missouri River system is not in
the public interest.

Consideration might have been given
to the establishment of a valley aw
thority instructed to study the control
and development of the water resources

just
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July 1946 ee UTILIZATION

of the Missouri basin; and to prepare a
co-ordinated plan from a consideration
of the needs for flood control, water
for irrigation, the production of hydro-
electric power where feasible, and the
protection and improvement of water
recreational areas.

No such proposal has been made,
and we are proceeding with a Missouri
River water plan under the sponsor-
ship of two of the federal agencies.

Requirements fora Best Plan

Just as the author sees no need or
justification for a Valley Authority for
the Missouri basin, so also as a tax-
payer and an engineer he is unable to
find that the proposed Missouri Valley
plan, as now authorized by Congress,
has met the tests which he considers
necessary to prove that it is in the pub-
lic interest. Such tests would require:

1. An inventory of the water needs
of the basin in each of the distinctive
functional fields of water development
and control.

2. The preparation of a system of
projects which would meet these needs
to an extent that can be economically
justified. This seems to require a visu-
alization of several alternate possible
methods of meeting the requirements,
and the determination out of these al-
ternates of the best plan.

3. An economic study
benefits of the best plan in each func-
tional field, under which costs, includ-
ing properly allocated costs of multi-
purpose projects, are conservatively
estimated at what they may be at the
time of construction, and only those
benefits which have a high probability
of being achieved are considered, and
conservatively estimated.

4. A comparison and co-ordination
of the best plans in each of the func-
tional fields, a clear statement of the

of costs and

conflicts which inevitably would exist
between functional water uses and con- _
trols, the preparation of several al-—
ternate plans which would appear to
offer the best compromise between c« oe
flicting interests, and a redetermination |
of the economic justification of the ele-
ments of each alternative plan, and of —
the best plan as a whole.
Finally, the assignment,

which

would appear to be in the public inter-

for the carrying out of projects —
under such a justifiable best plan to ©
federal and possibly state agencies hav-
ing primary responsibility and experi-—
ence in each particular field.

It would appear that under our pres-
ent system of democratic government, |
each of the steps above listed could be ©
carried out by an existing agency to the |
best advantage, except the co-ordinat-_
ing work required under Item 4. In |
this phase of the work, with the func-
tional plans prepared previously by —
various federal and state agencies,
something approaching a new authority |
appears to be necessary. Not only has |
our experience indicated that such a
co-ordination is practically impossible —
between the agencies of interest, but —
from the very background of human —
nature an independent and somewhat |
authoritative referee would seem to be |
essential. Each of the agencies must
necessarily approach this task with a_
strong pride in the results of its crea-
tion, a distinct unwillingness to sacri-
fice any features of its plan, and a very
definite tendency, from the complex of
the “‘bigger and better” department, to
have the greatest possible part of the
plan fall within its field of responsi-
bility. Out of these human traits, and
without disparagement of the capable
engineers and fine gentlemen in the
rival camps, something approaching a
horse-trading procedure is the best that

de
au-
t in
of
As
rich
au-
for
au-
trol
“ia

882 JOURNAL—A MERICAN
would be likely to be Achieved by direct
action between the parties; there could
be no assurance that the result would
be the best possible conclusion in the
interest of the general public.

Co-ordinating Council Suggested

It was from such an understanding
that Past-President J. C. Stevens of
the American Society of Civil Engi-
neers and the author, as citizen-engi-
neers, offered in the publication, Civil
Engineering, their proposal for a co-
ordinating authority. This was offered
with a full understanding of the ex-
istence of an Inter-Agency Committee
in Washington, and also of the Inter-
Agency Committee for the Missouri
Basin which consists of four of the
state governors and four representa-
tives of federal agencies. In the au-
thor’s opinion, this last body not only
has no real authority, but it does not
have the requisite personnel. At the
very least, the states would need to be
represented by engineers experienced
in the field of water development and
in the application of engineering eco-
nomics. In addition, the taxpayers of
the region, and the federal taxpayers
in particular, should have direct rep-
resentation by informed and capable
_ citizens removed as far as possible from
commitment to any pressure blocs.
Mr. Stevens and the author made the
— specific suggestion that, for a drain-
age basin of the size and complexity
of the Missouri, there be set up a
special council with the function of co-
ordinator and referee, and on_ this
~ council, in addition to the federal
- bureaus involved, there should be a
_ representative of the public from each
state, and possibly five additional citi-
zens appointed by the President; that

this council should have an executive

WATER WORKS

ASSOCIATION V ol. 38
committee of five devoting its entire
time to the work; and that it should
have a moderate staff sufficient to
analyze, not so much the technical
plans, as the relative economic pro-
priety of possible alternate plans; and
that it should be able to give the public
the results of its findings.

As was anticipated, such a proposal
was not sympathetically received py
any of the interested parties, the pub-
lic agencies apparently preferring to
continue to trade out or fight out their
differences, and the pressure blocs pre-
ferring to continue to exercise influence
through pressure on the federal agen-
cies and the members of the Congress,

The average taxpayer has difficulty
in becoming informed in such a situa-
tion; and, even when he develops
strong opinions about the public inter-
est, finds no existing organization
through which they can be expressed.
This appears to be the condition which
prevails. Its alteration would seem to
require a wide-spread acquisition of
interest by the individual citizen and
a direct campaign for his enlighten-
ment. Possibly the organized engi-
neering profession may be the agency
most nearly in an independent posi-
tion and most capable of developing a
sustained objective viewpoint. It might
be persuaded to apply the time and
talents of its membership necessary to
becoming fully informed on the eco-
nomic and social implications of river
development procedure, and, as a pub-
lic service, it might be brought to un-
dertake the promulgation of informa-
tion which should be useful to bring
about an understanding by the public
and by members of Congress of the
procedure essential to assure that such
developments are shown to be fully in
the public interest.

(
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F the country’s general problem of
0 controlling rivers, water works
nen are chiefly concerned with a very
gnall but important sector, that of pol-
ution control.

It would seem apparent that this
articular phase of river control affects
the public interest. It affects public
water supply ; it affects nuisance values
ind recreational values, and it reduces
the industrial usefulness and the bio-
logical life of the receiving body of
water. ‘This discussion, therefore, will
be limited to current sewage disposal
procedures, both domestic and indus-
trial, and their relationship to the pub-
lic interest at this time.

As a preface to such a discussion, a
statement made by the late President
Theodore Roosevelt, when he called the
irst Conference of Governors of all
the states in the Union to discuss
rivers, is pertinent. In his opening re-
marks at the Conference he made the
comment that America for a century
“has managed to mismanage all of its
river systems.”

Forty years have elapsed since that
time, and we have spent a great deal of
money, energy and time, and have
heard much discussion and seen much
action. Yet, in the author’s opinion,
the general relevancy and the general
accuracy of the statement can still
stand. It certainly can apply with few
reservations to the problem of stream
pollution and its abatement.

Presented on May 9, 1946, at the Annual Conference, St. Louis, Mo.

Responsibility for Industrial and Municipal Wastes

By Abel Wolman
Prof. of San. Eng., Johns Hopkins Univ., Baltimore, Md.

It is well known that this problem
has been accorded one of the important
priorities in river control. General
Pick (see page 859, this issue) pointed
out that it comes into consideration in
relation to the design, construction and
operation of major impounding reser-
voirs, and described the possibilities of
minimum regulated flow on the Mis-
sourt. There are examples on the Ohio,
the Allegheny, the Tennessee and the
Delaware, which all tend to demon-
strate that one cannot arbitrarily sepa-
rate the uses or the parts of any par-
ticular river.

What is the status, then, of sewage
disposal today? Roughly, the raw sew-
age of 47,000,000 persons empties into
the receiving bodies of water in this
country. An additional equivalent of
55,000,000 to 60,000,000 ‘persons is
added by untreated and uncontrolled
industrial wastes. For accounting pur-
poses, that is as bare and as simple a
statement of the problem as it is neces-
sary to have. We have studied and
restudied, surveyed and resurveyed al-
most ad nauseam the conditions that
prevail throughout many of the im-
portant bodies of water of this coun-
try. These studies have all served very
important and useful purposes. They
have tended to increase the body of
technical knowledge regarding the con-
ditions that prevail.

We have spent well over $700,000
on the recently completed survey of the

|
te
7)

884
Ohio River. It is a survey of which
we all ought to be proud. It repre-
sents in tonnage and volume submitted
to Congress a fairly substantial docu-
mentation of technical information.
We believe it to be sound. It certainly
is comprehensive. It represents per-
haps the largest exploration in size of
river basin and in detail of tributaries
and main stream that is available in the
world.

We have reviewed three times all of
the major rivers of the United States
for Congress and for the President of
the United States in a period of less
than 10 years. Detailed summaries,
some published, some unpublished, on
major stream basins, such as the Ten-
nessee River, are available. We have
a mass of data. They all indicate one
thing—that, by and large, although the
progress is substantial, it is slow. It
is slow on the public side and it is
slower on the industrial side. All of
these evaluations indicate that we are
confronted with a substantial bill of
between two and three billion dollars
for necessary major corrections in pres-
ent conditions.

Public Opinion

The public interest can be divided
into at least three groups. On the one
side, perhaps the very right-wing side,
there is the gradualist group of per-
sons who feel that, although the condi-
tions are somewhat as described here in
general terms, progress has been fairly
good, that the rate of execution will
continue and that the general result is
not too bad.

At the extreme left, we might place
that group best exemplified by the
members of the Wild Life Federation
and the Izaak Walton League, who feel
that progress is infinitesimal, that the
results are highly objectionable and

JOURNAL—AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION

that, left to the normal processes of
state and local action, perhaps another
two centuries might elapse before we
catch up with the conditions of 1946

In between, of course, there is a very
large group of those who feel that ac.
complishment is desirable and tha
much can be and should be done t
speed up processes and undertakings

Evidently, if one may read the Signs
of the present-day operations, the states
are aware of the left- and right-wing
pressures. States are deluging the
files, the current literature, the trade
journals and the public platforms for
speech-making with the listing of the
many orders which are being issued
to municipalities and industries for the
preparation of plans and, we hope, for
the ultimate corrective installations.

Pennsylvania alone, for example, is
issuing orders, at least for the pre.
liminary plans and surveys, at the rate
of several hundred a month. Ther
are symptoms not only of public interest
but of public pressure on our official
agencies to pursue the task with a little
less deliberateness and with a little
more speed.

Vol. 3

Proposed Legislation

In the federal government, we find
a very interesting trend. We have
watched, over a period of about 7 or 8
years, the introduction of legislation at
each Congress. Even during the war
such legislation was introduced, again
governed by the two approaches just
mentioned. There is a mild gradualist
approach in one group of proposed
legislation and a very advanced, rapid
trend toward federal regulatory proc-
esses in the other.

These attitudes are clear-cut. There
is very little give-and-take between the
two extremes. The most significant
aspect of this conflict is exemplified by

the
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July 1946 RESPONSIBILITY
the fact that less than a month ago the
Rivers and Harbors Committee of the
House, after holding extensive hearings
running into hundreds of pages of
testimony on all sides of the question,
came out with a recommended piece of
legislation which has been described as
The compromise,
weighted on

a “compromise.”
however, seems heavily
the federal control side.

Most of the testimony of state regu-
latory bodies and the disinterested sani-
tary engineers revolved around the con-
clusion and the agreement that there
needed to be a new stimulus by the
federal government, new interest in the
general topic and new administrative
development. Testimony indicated
that it would be desirable to add these
factors at that stage. What has been
added in the proposed compromise bill
is a very interesting diversion from
them. Some highlights only will be
mentioned here.

1. The proposed bill (HR 6024),
recommended for passage by the Rivers
and Harbors Committee, almost com-
pletely eliminates state participation in
most of the administrative and regula-
tory features. For example, in the re-
vised advisory board proposed in the
new bill, all state and all neutral rep-
resentations as such have been dropped
out. The new advisory board is made
up exclusively of existing federal agen-
cies and represents less widespread
viewpoints than are recommended by
some of the other proposals.

2. The U.S. Public Health Service
is given far more extensive powers
than had been proposed in the original
Spence bill (HR 4070).

3. The federal government assumes
regulatory jurisdiction, hemmed in, it
is true, by certain deferments in time,
but they are not too long. Two years
‘in national activity is not a long time;

wa,

885

FOR WASTES

this is the specified period after which
the federal government shall begin to
exercise a regulatory control. The At-
torney General of the United States is
then authorized to take action if the
states, the municipalities and the dis-
tricts involved have not taken the cor-
rective actions considered necessary.

There is a lapse, also, of 5 years be-
yond the original two, if it is found by
the federal government that the local
municipality or industry is not in a
position technologically or financially
to obey the directive. That extension
may be renewed from time to time.

It is very important to bear that par-
ticular situation in mind, because it is a
frank indication and recognition of the
fact that federal participation is at
least proposed on a higher level than
is generally considered to be the desire
of a great many people interested in
this particular field.

It is profitable to indicate why the
author thinks this is happening. When
we are evaluating what we ought to do
with a national problem, we ought to
ask sometime why we find ourselves —
jockeyed into a situation which we do |
not like. The industrial faults are se-_
lected first, not because the author
wants to cast any recriminations on in-—
dustry, as distinct from the munici- —
pality, but because they happen to take ©
precedence in his particular explana- 3
tion.

Industrial Handling of Wastes

The general characteristic of indus-
trial abatement over the years is, at its
best, carelessness; at its worst, com-—
plete disregard of industrial responsi-—
bility. Industry is beginning to pay
the penalty for this neglect.

Where industry or the municipality
discovered its right to discharge its re-
fuse into the nearest body of water

Vol
ses of
nother
Te we |
1946
a very
at ac-
that
|
a

886 JOURNAL—AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION | Vol x

without cease or review, the author
has never discovered in any principle
of law or decent housekeeping. The
author drew an analogy not so long ago
to the sacred cow of India, which in
certain of the religions of the Far East
is a protected animal. If it dies in the
middle of a stream, it cannot be touched
for removal. It remains there until it
disintegrates, no matter how objec-
tionably, because it is a sacred cow.

There is an analogous sacred cow in
the United States: namely, the right of
industry to discharge into a body of
water such things as it has not found
desirable or profitable to remove from
its industrial wastes. That concept has
driven a great many people in this
country, including a great many mem-
bers of Congress, to move in the direc-
tion of increased federal responsibility.

It is difficult to understand, for ex-
ample, why industry feels that it is
perfectly legitimate to discharge those
materials into our bodies of water with-
out let or restraint when it hesitates to
deposit all its solid wastes on the near-
est highway crossroad, there to be left,
in such tonnage and in such state of
decomposition as the nature of the
product may assume. No industry does
that. No industry chooses that other
highway of traffic, the public cross-
road, for the disposal of its solid waste ;
but the principle, historically unac-
counted for, that it has a right to pur-
sue it on the public highway of our
average river, is followed without ques-
tion,

How might this have been avoided
or how might it still be avoided by in-
dustry? The principle which should
guide it for the future is that the cost
of treatment of wastes ought to be con-
sidered a fundamental part of the cost
of production. New plants should be
designed in such a way that we would

no longer find, as we do in most plants
sewers frequently under or around
buildings, and so mixed up that it js
impossible to separate the waste from
the cooling water.

One need not examine all of oy
major rivers. The author has one par.
ticularly in mind, however, of great
size, where roughly 60 per cent of the
total organic load of the stream comes
from three major industries. These
are not bankrupt industries. They are
industries of national character. Their
accounting sheets are good. Their re.
search groups are excellent. Their
competence in the production of new
products, in devising new methods of
manufacture, in the research for new
undertakings is simply astounding to
the rest of the world. The record stops
at the sewer. Even the annual report
reflects that failure to trace the result
of their operations upon the river it-
self.

A recent annual report of one of the
major industries in the United States
listed seven objectives of research and
development within the industry. In
the seven, there is not a semblance of
recognition of the problem of industrial
wastes. They are all focused on prod-
ucts for sale, on methods of packing, on
research toward developing new prod-
ucts. Of course, these factors are what
make American industry, but they als
make American industrial waste. Wh
the problem of industrial waste should
not be considered an integral part oi
the problem of industry the author has
not been able to discover. Its absence
is not properly accounted for becaus
of the corresponding absence of finan-
cial return. That should be borne #
mind, too, when one reviews the his
tory of industrial operation.

One last principle for industry should
be emphasized. A _ technological cot

Vol. 38

dlants,
Tound
t it js

our
€ par-
great
otf the
comes
These
ey are
Their
ir re-
Their
f new
ds ot
r new
ing to
I ste IPs
report
result
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of the
States
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ustrial
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| con-

1946 on RESPONSIBILITY FOR WASTES

sience should be substituted for legal
advice. ‘The author would like to see
industry, and the municipality as well,
move out of the lawyer’s office into the

research laboratory.

Municipal Handling of Wastes

Now, what about the municipalities ?
One of the unfortunate peculiarities of
sewage disposal and sewage discharge
is that, except 1n rare instances, It 1s
the offender’s neighbor who suffers and
not himself. Sewage goes downstream ;
it exacts penalties elsewhere. Decent
housekeeping disappears from the door
at it becomes possible to sweep the dirt
from one house under the rug of one’s
next door neighbor without being made
aware of it from day to day, so that the
responsibility has not yet been fully
recognized by the general public.

A second psychological deterrent has
entered. Municipality after munici-
y sits around waiting for largesse

887
as if some remote, unknown Santa
Claus were going to pay the bill. Now,

it may be appropriate to finance all
sewage disposal in the United States
by federal income taxes. The author
does not contend that it is inappropri-
ate or unsound in principle or practice.
But it is fairly clear that a large pro-
portion of the states and their local
subdivisions are financially able to as-
sume the obligations for their own dis-
charges. There exceptions; the
author believes they are minor in num-
ber and in magnitude.

This rush toward federal participa-
tion cannot be stemmed by the thou-
sands of speeches by governors, mem-
bers of legislatures, engineers and ad-
ministrators, or by pious philosophiz-
ing about states rights, without the ac-
companying assumption of state re-
sponsibilities. Local authority must be
supported by the exercise of local re-
sponsibility.

are

Shoulc te City H Municipal F ?
a ue ity Have a Municipal Forest‘

Section of Community Forests, Div. of State Co-operation, U.S. Forest Service,
Milwaukee, Wis.

A contribution to the Journal

HE war proved that timber is a
critical raw material in national de-
_fense. The scarcity of lumber for meet-
ing the housing situation and shortage
of pulp and paper are further proofs
that timber is a critical peacetime ma-
terial. Therefore failure to provide for
an adequate supply of timber for the
future would be courting national dis-
aster, and, since the bulk of the supply
come henceforth from second-
growth forests, there must be a pro-
gram of forestry that will assure ade-
quate future supplies of timber as
needed. An adequate forestry program
for this country must indubitably mo-
bilize the timber-growing capacities of
all forest land, whether it be in public
or private ownership.

Many American cities have land
which they are holding for watershed
protection or some other protective use
on which the growing of timber will in
no way interfere with the original pur-
pose of ownership. Yet a large part of
this land is not under forestry manage-
ment. The owners spend what is nec-
essary to protect the areas from fire or
trespass but make no attempt to step
up the quantity and quality of the tree
growth. Here is a potential source of
timber which should be developed in
the national interest; it should also be
done as a matter of developing a source
of income to the community.

The area of land held by municipali-
ties or in quasi-public ownership by

888

water companies is not large when com-
pared to the areas of state and national
forests, but it consists for the most part
of lands of high timber producing po-
tentialities, situated at lower altitudes,
Many of them are former farms taken
out of cultivation to stop silting of
reservoirs and have deep rich soils
capable of growing good timber crops
on short rotations. Here the condi-
tions for the practice of forestry are as
favorable as can be found on any pri-
vate forest lands from which the bulk
of the nation’s timber will come. But
there is also the advantage that the
municipal lands will remain in con-
tinuous ownership over a long period
so that a consistent policy of manage-
ment can be pursued. This is a factor
which is important in forestry.
Americans, long used to an economy
of plenty in the timber supply, have not
felt the urge to practice forestry. Now
that the country is faced with the prob-
lem of procuring its timber require-
ments through regrowth of its forests,
the share that municipal forest lands
can contribute becomes a matter of
major importance. If all this land
were under careful forestry manage-
ment, comparable to that accorded the
municipal forests of Europe, there
would be building up in this country
valuable forest properties with inven-
tories of growing timber that would
rival the world-famous European for-

ests.

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of Ic
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A MUNICIPAL FOREST

July 1946

The municipal forest of the city of
Berne, Switzerland, offers an example
{ what a municipality can do with a
gnall forest property. The printed
annual report of this forest for 1944
shows that the city owns a tract of
9242 acres. The forest is valued at
$2.157,900. Upon this valuation in
1944 it paid state and communal taxes
amounting to $24,900. Timber cut in
that year amounted to 447,250 cu.ft.
of logs and 6,830 cords of firewood and
pulpwood. The gross receipts were
$317,700. The forest furnished em-
ployment to 21 regular employees and
134 seasonal workers during the cut-
ing period. After paying management
and operating expenses, including
yermanent improvements, accident in-
surance, pensions to retired employees
and taxes, the forest operation for the
year yielded a net income of $159,900
or $19.50 per acre. Since this was
unusually large, $100,000 was added
to the forest reserve fund which is used
to even out the income in leaner years.
Even during the pre-war depression
years, the forest consistently yielded
anet income, but it varied from 0.18 to
6.58 per cent on the assessed valuation.
For the period 1930 to 1944 the aver-
age income was approximately $55,000
or 2.25 per cent. The reserve funds at
the end of this period amounted to
$384,000, a healthy guaranty of a sus-
tained annual return to the city.

The report on the Berne Forest pre-
sents a picture of what American cities
ould do and should be preparing to do

889

with their municipal wild lands. It is
unfortunate that we must look to
Europe for examples of intensive mu-
nicipal forestry. Some of our cities,
however, have already made consid-
erable progress in that direction. Man-
chester, N.H., employs a professional
forester who administers the city for-
est upon a sustained yield basis under
a long-range management plan. North
Adams, Mass.; Newark, N.J.; Read-
ing, Pa.; and Newport News, Va., are
other cities which employ foresters to
manage their woodlands. Many more
cities are building up their municipal
forests through reforestation and tim-
ber cultural methods which are pre-
liminary to the intensive methods of
silviculture used in Europe. They are
blazing the trail which in the course of
time will become the accepted practice
among American cities that own wood-
lands.

Time is an important element in the
development of a productive forest
property. It requires looking ahead
some 25 to 50 years to visualize the
advantages of prudent development of
municipal woodlands, in order that the
community may enjoy the benefits that
forestry will provide. . In this recon-
struction period, there is beginning a
new surge toward better forestry which
has for its objective better homes, bet-
ter communities and _ better living.
Those who have responsibility for civic
policies should consider well whether
the time has not arrived to join their
resources in this important movement.

|
y
om-
part
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des.
ken
of
oils
Oops
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OW
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ts,
ds
of
nd

Key: In the reference to the pebtication in which the abstracted article appears, 34: 41)

(Mar. 42) indicates volume 34, page 412

1942.

follows: B.H.—Bulletin of Hygiene (British);
Health Engineering Abstracts; W.P.R.—Water Pollution Research (British); I.M.—Institute o

Metals (British)

The Chlorination of Mains and the Defects of
Yarn as a Jointing Material. E. WINDLE
TAYLOR & L. C. WHISKIN. Wer. & Wtr. Eng.
(Br.) 48: 597: 703 (’45). During period of
aerial bombing, it was practice to chlorinate
only repaired mains 12” and over in diam.
Practice was to use dose of 10 ppm. of
chlorine with contact period of 3} to 2 hr.
Method considered to be generally
factory. At later time effect of this treat-
ment on smaller mains gave unsatisfactory
results and extensive investigation made
utilizing exptl. pipeline laid partly above
ground and partly below. Line 310 yd. long
and consisted of 4” pipe with various kinds
of connections and valved so that varying
treatment could be applied. All conditions
found in distr. system duplicated. Scheme
of applying bleach soln. as spray to inside of
pipe with ordinary stirrup pump abandoned
because of frequent unsatisfactory results.
Yarn removed from joints after having been
in service some time contained “‘yarn”’ type
organisms, which have come under general
heading of coliforms, and yarn had offensive
odor. Sample of yarn weighing 2.25 gm.
placed in flask with 250 ml. of tap water and
incubated at 22°C. In 3 days coliform count
increased to 300,000 per 100 ml. after which
it declined, reaching concn. of 1 per 100 ml.
in 35 days. At lower temps., count did not
go so high nor persist for so long. Fact that
multiplication did not take place at 4°C.,
to any considerable extent, explains why
mains laid in wintertime sterilized easily.
Joints in exptl. pipeline laid with autoclaved
yarn and with untreated yarn and while
autoclaved yarn developed myriads of bac-

teria of ty pe norms ally found in water supply,

satis-

, issue dated March 1942.
by the issue, 34: 3: 56 (Mar. 4?) indic ae volume 34, number 3, page 56, issue dated March
Initials following an abstract indicate reproduction, by permission, from periodicals, as

Abstracts; P.H.E.A.—Pyblj

C.A.—Chemical

unautoclaved yarn maintd. coliform typ
throughout expt. and developed foul od
Autoclaved yarn developed no unusual od
Authors reason that since chlorine concen.
10 ppm. will kill exposed bacteria, no reas
to go to higher dosages, since even they w
not penetrate “particulate”
bacteria. Authors conclude that men e
gaged in main laying should be given speci
instructions in hygiene;
should be suitably protected from dust in
mediately after mfr.;
main laying, as well as all men concerne
with operation of water works, should ir
clude no typhoid carriers; raw hemp unsui
able in pipe joints which latter difficulty ma
be avoided by emploving one or combinatio
of following procedures: (1) Some complete!
inert material such as compressed paper
rubber or a suitable plastic as a substitut
for the yarn. (2) Sleeve or
contact between varn and water. (3) Mech
joints, particularly in case of repairs to ol
mains. Abstractor’s Discussion.

of mains 12” and larger after repairing boml
damage, and poor results obtained in smaller
mains, may

which offers less opportunity for multiplica
tion of bacteria and provides greater diln. 0
organisms which ooze out of hemp packing
Authors’ observation with respect to temp
and conclusion that mains laid in cold weather
much easier sterilized duplicated writer's
own experience on many occasions. N
doubt that recommended dose of 10 ppm. ol
chlorine will destroy bacteria not enclosed in
“particulate” matter. Tendency has been

If the publication i is paged

matter enclosing

each length of pip

all men engaged or

seal to prevent

Would ap-

pear that good results obtained in treatment

be explained because of prob-
ability of greater flow of water in larger pipes

Abstracts of Water Works Literature _
u
Wi
el
?
Nc
Th

34: 41)
Pager
March
Cals, as
-Public
itute of

insult
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natior
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Da per
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boml
naller
prob-
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plica-
In. of
king
emp
ather
iter’s

WATER WORKS

July 1946

in U.S. to apply such doses of chlorine as may
be expected to burn their way, with time,
into great deal of solid particles in main.
Recently, dosage of 700 ppm. applied to
short section of repaired main which concn.
fell to 50 ppm. in 24 hr. Main laid with un-
treated and unsterilized hemp. Despite fact
that temp. of water under 4°C., coliforms
appeared in water in closed-off main in about
? wk. Authors’ scheme of scrubbing and
hosing sections of c-i. pipe immediately before
placing in trench is especially good one. Of
course it may be different in future, but
during war mfrs. very skeptical of pur-
chasers of c-i. pipe being willing to pay
addnl. price for “thimbling” ends of c-i. pipe
immediately after mfr. If arranged, source of
much trouble would be elimd.

Apparently most mains flushed in U.S. be-
fore chlorination and observation of condi-
tion of flushing water shows that great deal
of “particulate” matter removed this
fashion. Would seem that any reasonable
procedure which elims. considerable amt. of
such material justified. As practical matter,
substitution of some inert material for hemp
or rendering of it unsuited for bact. food im-
portant aside from possible health hazard.
Writer has observed very foul odors given off
by unsterilized hemp in their exptl. mains.
It is in dead end that greatest difficulty
encountered, where odors developed by bact.
growth, promoted by org. matter in hemp,
which are entirely foreign to the usual odors
encountered in water. Alexander, in Jour.
AW.W.A., 33: 769 (1941) has demonstrated
practicability of Portland cement, without
hemp, for c-i. pipe joints. Work done several
years ago on “‘plastic’’ yarn showed that it
was not for water bacteria. At that
time its cost was out of reason. Extremely
interesting to learn that typhoid carriers not
emploved on water “undertakings” in Eng-
land. Certainly it is wise precaution and
one which should be taken universally.
Discussion which paper provoked lively and

food

extremely interesting in experiences re-
counted. Particularly intriguing is verse
quoted by one “dissenter” from Pope's

“Essay on Criticism”:

“With mean complacency ne’er betray your
trust,

Nor be so civil as to prove unjust;

Fear not the anger of the wise to raise,

Those best can hear reproof who
praise.”’

merit

LITERATURE 891

Authors are to be complimented on extensive
and thorough investigation they have made
and very inclusive report on work.—C. K.
Calvert. ]

The Design and Calibration of an Apparatus
for the Chlorination of Mains. R. J. BELL.
Wtr. & Wtr. Eng. (Br.) 48: 597: 741 (’45).
Since need was felt for simple device to add
automatically and uniformly predetd. dose of
chlorine to water entering newly laid or re-
repaired main, series of expts. carried on
using injectors. As result of investigation,
injector chosen with inlet diam. of 3” and
throat diam. of 3”, built on conventional
venturi lines. 3’ rubber tube conveyed
sodium hypochlorite soln. from container
below injector to its throat. Subsidiary
i’ 3” injector with opening in its
throat delivers mixt. of water and 10%
sodium hypochlorite soln. to suction tank of
main injectors. Ratios of supply water to
chlorine solns. handled resulted in applica-
tion of 15-ppm. dose of chlorine to main being
treated. Expts. show that with inlet pres-
sure of 110’ head rate of injection practically
const. until back pressure in mains reached
45’ head. Thus, demonstrated that injectors
would treat point in main 45’ above point of
application. Abstractor’'s Discussion. Au-
thor has worked out very painstakingly and
nicely relationship between injectors to re-
duce 10°, hypochlorite soln. to desired
strength for application to main and in an
entirely uniform and automatic fashion.
Paper does not disclose source of sodium
hypochlorite, which is not a commercial
article, on large scale, in U.S. May be made
by addn. of soda ash to high-test calcium
hypochlorite in thin slurry, after which cal-
cium salts pptd. and more or less clear sodium
hypochlorite soln. siphoned off. Under care-_
fully controlled conditions, primarily with
respect to temp. during reacting period,
chlorine gas may be fed into solns. of caustic
soda and sodium hypochlorite solns. pro-
duced up to approx. 15% active chlorine.
Under conditions in U.S., it would seem —
doubtful that this method would be attractive —
except in the case of very small installations
and where ample time, as well as labor, avail- —
able for prepn. of soln. ahead of time. It
would seem that there would be over-all
economy in use of portable chlorinators which
will deliver soln. of chlorine gas at predetd.
rate, which may be varied to meet capacs. of

Ly pes
odor
| odor
1cNn, ¢
reasor
eV WI
losing
ef
speci
pipe
st in
ed o
ern
ber

various size lines, with flow of water from
distant end of main being controlled by ori-
fice, amt. of water being dischgd. detd. by
use of Pitot gage. In U.S. practice main full
of water at time chlorination to be carried
out. Thus, simply necessary to establish
rate of flow of water through main, as out-
lined above, and then adjust chlorinator to
deliver amt. of chlorine desired. Such
scheme extremely flexible and_ chlorine
dosage changed at will and almost instantly.
After main laid, flushed and suitable taps
installed, one man can take chlorine trailer
to site, make necessary connections and
chlorinate main in quite short order. Differ-
ence in time spent in prepn. of sodium hypo-
chlorite soln., its transportation to job and its
application, and relatively short time nec-
essary to chlorinate main as outlined would
very soon pay for difference in cost of two
pieces of equip. Irrespective of breadth of
application of device, it is encouraging to
know of a man who has done such a nice
piece of work.—C. K. Calvert.

The Determination of Free Chlorine and
of Chloramine in Water Using p-Amino-
dimethylaniline. A.T.PALIN. & Wtr.
Eng. (Br.) 48: 504 (Sept. '45). From The
Analyst, p. 203, June ‘45. Std. o-t. test
measures free chlorine and also less active
chlorine combined with ammonia and amino
compds., and may show false residuals due to
interfering substances. Reproducible colors
cannot always be obtained, particularly for
~ yalues of chlorine less than 1.0 ppm. Neutral
- o-t. test appears to be specific for free chlorine,
but colors formed may fade rapidly. Test
not sensitive to residuals of less than 0.2 ppm.
Amperometric method of Marks and Glass
will give accurate detns. of free chlorine and
of chlorine combined with nitrogenous
compds. when present in mixt. P-amino-
dimethylaniline has been proposed as indi-
cator in test for chlorine. Haase and Gad
found soln. of reagent in HCI to be sensitive
to 0.01 ppm. chlorine, but test subject to
‘interference by iron, manganese and nitrites.
Reagent in phosphoric acid soln. gave better
results but interference was not completely
_ prevented. By buffering sample to be tested
to pH 6.0, red “flash” color obtained on
~addn. of reagent when free chlorine present.
Moore placed test in semi-quant. basis by
using stds. prepd. from basic fuchsin and
copper acetate. Method suggested based on

892 JOURNAL—AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION Vol. 38
dl,

following: (a) iodine and chlorine jn equiy
amts. give same color with p-aminodimethy1.
aniline; (b) when water buffered to suitable
pH chlorine, but not chloramine, gives red
color with p-aminodimethylaniline, [p pres-
ence of potassium iodide, and at same pH, red
color due to chloramine develops. Color
development in both reactions instantaneoys
Method (a): Chlorine—place 100 mi, of
sample in Nessler tube contg. 2 ml. buffer
soln. and 0.5 ml. p-aminodimethylaniline
soln. Mix and match color immediately by
running std. iodine soln. from burette into
second 100-ml. Nessler tube contg. same amts
of buffer soln. and p-aminodimethylaniline
soln. in distd. water. After each addn. of
iodine mix with “plunger type” stirrer, [f
more than 0.5 ppm. chlorine present, take
less of sample and place in Nessler tube
contg. reagents and sufficient distd. water to
give vol. of 100 ml. Method (b): Chlora-
mine—put crystal of KI in sample tube, mix
and match colors by addnl. iodine to control
tube. Addnl. iodine soln. required represents

chloramine-chlorine. If more than 0.5 ppm. °

indicated, proceed as above. Interference
by ferric iron and manganic manganese
largely elimd. by buffering to pH 6.0. Error
more completely avoided by buffering to 6.8,
Buffering to higher pH values reduces inter-
ference, although test becomes less sensitive,
In range of 0 to 0.5 ppm. of chlorine higher
residuals can be reproduced to within 0,02
ppm. and lower residuals to 0.01 ppm.
Study of reaction between p-aminodimethyl-
aniline and chlorine shows that it may be
developed into practical, colorimetric method
for estn. of chlorine and chloramines in water.
If both present they may be estd. separately.
Possible sources of error have been investi-
gated and method, modified where necessary,
can be regarded as free from interference.

H. E. Babbitt.

The Break-point Chlorination of Water. A.
lr. Patin. J. Inst. San. Engrs. (Br.) (Apr.-
July °45). Dose-residual curve of practi-
cally every water will fit, or will be some
modification of, one of three general curves:
Type A—water free from ammonia and other
chlorine absorbing materials; Type B—free
ammonia predominates; Type C—waters
high in albumenoid ammonia or suspended
org. matter. Type A curve substantially
45-deg. straight line. Type B is character-
istic hump and dip, and type C has slow

July

strai
with
to I
conti
and |
cont
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perce
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amm
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slow

July 1946 es WATER WORKS LITERATURE |

straight line demand, the 45-deg. rise starting
without customary dip. Raw water supplied
to Ryton plant varies widely in ammonia
content, falling, at different times, in both B
and C types. During times of high ammonia
content, break-point dose reduced from 50 to
6 ppm. by passing water through high-rate
percolating filter. Author presents simple
reactions resulting in eventual oxidation of
ammonia to nitrogen but, after digest of
evidence presented, concludes that it is likely
that some other compds. produced, although
main end product probably nitrogen. Work
of Chapin done on higher concns. of nitrogen
and chlorine and with ammonia always in
excess. Evidence is increasing to show that
his results do not apply to concns. used in
chlorination of water. Author refers to
interesting work of Norman and Wright
J. Biochem. (’36)) on hypo-chlorination of
glycine and the light it throws on problem of
chlorine-ammonia reactions. Rate of break-
point reaction dependent upon temp., pH
lund nature of nitrogeneous materials. In
actice, opt. temp. about 70°F. Increasing

H tends to retard. Several hours may be

squired to complete reaction at break-point.

Author found dose of 5 ppm. to be effective
where it was necessary to coagulate and
settle protozoa. Live organisms coagulated
with difficulty. Ammonia may be added to
over-chlorinated water in suitable ammonia
to de-chlorinate it. Care needed in chlorinat-
ing and ammoniating to see that amts. added
are in right proportion to produce desired
residuals. If chlorine-ammonia ratio greater
than 5 to 7, dissipation of chlorine takes place.
In practice, by careful control of ammonia
dose, possible to leave free chlorine residual,
or chloramine residual, or to effect complete
de-chlorination. While break-point chlo-
rination not a panacea, its use has elimd.
great variety of tastes and odors, improved
coagulation and increased filter runs materi-
ally. Where qual. of raw water const.,
break-point chlorination controlled easily,
but where there is great variation on am-
monia, and where high doses required, process
should be supervised by chemist. In reply
to a question, author stated that, while
poisonous chlorinated proteins are known, no
evidence of injury to people in continued use
of highly chlorinated water. Impounding
chlorinated water may lead to rapid bact.
altergrowth where residuals dissipated.—
C. K. Calvert.

The Sterilization of New Water Mains. W.
H. Austin. Wtr. & Wtr. Eng. (Br.) 48: 395
(July, *45). Calvert [Jour. A.W.W.A., 37:
46 ('45)] states that veloc. of 680 fpm. in 6”
main not efficient scouring veloc. Adams
and Kingsbury found that hemp could culture
E. typhosa and that many bacteria live in
rubber. Ortho-mercuro-phenol (Klerol) pen-
etrates hemp fibers completely. Const. ex-
posure to water will not remove it. Hemp
treated with Klerol at rate of 3 mg. of mercury
per g. holds bact. counts low for many
months. Next best treatment is soaking
hemp for several hours in 15% copper sulfate
soln. and then rinsing and soaking in 10%
sodium carbonate soln. In Apr. °43, pipe
laying for military camp carried out, under
my direction, in usual manner. Pipe work
flushed thoroughly. Samples taken from
tap first with water flowing from suction
side and then from delivery side. Report
showed 180+ coliforms per 100 ml. System
treated with 4 lb. chloride lime on suction
line and same amt. in pump casing, giving
chlorine concn. of 100 ppm. in system. After
j-hr. contact, system flushed, as before, until
chlorine residual lost. Results showed 180+
coliforms per 100 ml. Equiv. of 150 ppm.
chlorine inserted and allowed to stand 4 hr.
After flushing sample showed only 14 coli-
forms per 100 ml. System again treated
with 100 ppm. of chlorine and flushed after
3 hr. Sample taken from system 3 days
later showed 180+ coliforms per 100 ml.
again. Concn. of 200 ppm. of chlorine put
into system, soln. circulated for 4 hr. and
system was then flushed. Samples revealed
180+ organisms per ml. in delivery main.
Yarn in sockets strongly suspected as source
of poln. Anals. showed it contained 1800+
coliforms per 100 ml. Decision was to dis-
mantle all pipe work, exam. for possible cause
of poln., and re-lay with every possible care
as to cleanliness. Pipes cleaned thoroughly
with bleach soln. No obvious cause of poln.
found. When lead joints remade, ring of
yarn soaked in bleach soln. used first; then
ring of dry yarn. Special care taken to pre-
vent ‘‘blows” when lead run. Laying gang
conscious of need for care in work. System
then treated with 150 ppm. chlorine churned
through pump for 30 min. Then after 13-hr.
contact period, system flushed. Samples
showed 90 organisms per 100 ml. on delivery
side. Chlorine dose increased to 200 ppm.
with contact period of 70 hr. Samples

893
‘ol. 38
=

894 JOURNAL—AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION

showed no coliforms in 100 ml. Second plant
installed with all precautions in pipe laying.
After contact period of 24 hr. with 30 ppm.
of chlorine no coliforms found in 100° ml.
Conclusions to be drawn similar to those
which Calvert formulated from exptl. work.
H. E. Babbitt.

Disinfection During Operation of Ground
Water Filters Contaminated With Coliform
Bacteria. W. Gas- u. Wasserfach
Ger.) 87: 23 ('44). At water works where
ground water filtered, open rapid filters be-
came contamd. with coliform bacteria so that
filtrates contained bacteria although raw
water did not. Thorough washing of filters
did not preduce desired result and therefore
necessary to chlorinate them. Filters could
not be taken out of service for more than 1 or
2 hr. and chlorine gas could therefore not be
used. Each filter when full contained about
50 cm. of water. Portions of slurry made by
mixing 150 g. of calcium hypochlorite with
10 1. of water added at frequent intervals to
water entering each filter. Outlets for
filtered water closed. When filter full, water
standing above filter medium thoroughly
mixed. After 3 hr. water level lowered until
chlorinated water penetrated right
through filter medium and some of chlorinated
water still stood above medium. Filter left
in this condition for 4 hr. After 2 hr. and
after 2 days coliform bacteria still present in
filtrate from 3 filters but absent from filtrates
from 2 filters which had been washed shortly
before chlorination. All filters again chlo-
rinated, dosage of hypochlorite being 10 g./em.
of water; this dosage caled. to give concn. of
residual chlorine of 1.8 mg./l. after contact
for 30 min. Coliform bacteria still present
2 hr. after treatment in filtrate from 1 filter
and 2 days after treatment in filtrates from 2
filters. Attempt next made to increase
effectiveness of hypochlorite by addn. of
hydrochloric acid; to each |. of water were
added 0.01 g. of calcium hypochlorite and
0.003 g. of 25°, hydrochloric acid. Slurry
of hypochlorite for each filter divided into
10 parts and each part added to water enter-
ing filter immediately before addn. of acid.
Water level in filter lowered 15 min. after
filter full and filter left in this condition for 1
hr. All filters washed before chlorination.
3 wk. after treatment, filtrates all still free
from coliform bacteria. Chem. compn. of
water affected by treatment for few hr. only.

W.P.R.

Vol, 33

The Purification of Drinking Water in Filter
Candles. I. PERAGALLO. Z. Hyg. InfektKr
(Ger.) 123: 531 ('42). Filter candles widely
used for disinfecting drinking water, byt
bacteria gradually grow through porous
candles. Attempt made to improve disin-
fection by filling candle with silvered sand
which would destroy bacteria by oligody-
namic action. Not entirely satisfactory a
practice as water in contact with silver for
only short time, and no action on bacteria
retained in walls of candle. Investigations
on use of filter candles in which silver de-
posited in walls described. When tap water
contg. 10-12 bacteria per ml. passed through
plain candles and through silvered candles
bacteria began to pass through plain candle
after 5 days but none passed through silvered
candle in 9 days. When waters contg.
Eberthella typhosa and Esch. coli commune
passed through filters, bacteria detected in
effluent from plain candle on third day, but
not detected in effluent from silvered candle
after 9 days. Sufficient silver not dissolved
from filter to produce effluent with bacter-
icidal properties. Action of filter reduced
by presence of hydrogen sulfide in water, and
waters contg. this substance should be given

nor
tim
seal
Ele
apP
vek
son
has
of ¢
acti

prelim. aeration before filtration throug
silvered candles. If silvered candles treat
with potassium permanganate so that silve
manganate formed, filtrate has bactericidal
action and activity of filter not reduced by
presence of hydrogen sulfide. Silver man
ganate candles used for 3 mo. before thei
activity began to decline. To reduce dan4
gers of breakage of candles of silvered in-
fusorial earth, filter designed in which pro-
tective candle of porous kaolin surrounded
silvered candle; also improved operation of
filter.—C.A.

The Sterilization of Water. ditorial Notes.
Wtr. & Wtr. Eng. (Br.) 48: 485 (Sept. 45),
Chlorination usually simplest and cheapest
means of rendering impure water rapidly fit
for human consumption. Chlorine is not
only most effective bactericide in water
purif. but possesses other valuable properties.
For example, it elims. tastes and odors.
However, if large chlorine residuals should be
left, corrosion may be caused with introdue-
tion of deleterious metallic salts into water
Chlorine dioxide has 24 times oxidizing power
of chlorine. In some continental countries
notably France and Germany, ozonation ha
been employed for many years. Maint.

sup}
mi.
Ave

true
dist:
crea
Exp
alga
with
faul
pher
lb.-f

|
|
«

Vol, 38

in Filter
nfektKr,
S widely
ter, but
porous
e disin-
ed sand
oligody-
tory in
Iver for
bacteria
‘igations
Iver de-
P water
through
candles,
| candle
silvered
contg.
ommune
cted in
ay, but
| candle
issolved
bacter-
reduced
ter, an

e give
throug
treat
t silver
ericida!
iced by
man-
re their
red in-
ch pros
‘ounded

tion of

| Notes!
rt.
hea pest
idly fit
is not
water
perties.
odors
ould be
troduc:
water
powey
untries
ion ha

Iyly 1946 WATER WORKS

esidual chlorine in distr. pipes not part of
normal water works treatment but was war-
time precaution. Almost virgin field for re-
varch with elec. methods of disinfection.
Electro-osmosis is being exptd. with. There
appear to be considerable possibilities in de-
yelopments of micro-straining. Argued, by
some, that treatment of water with chems.
has been carried too far. Research will do
much to elucidate benefits or disadvantages
of chem. treatment of water supplies. More
active chlorine dioxide or combination of
chloride and ozone would mean less chems.
in drinking water.—H. E. Babbitt.

Cause and Control of Iron and Manganese
Difficulties in a Water Works. H. BEGER &
W. Haase. Kleine Mitt. fiir Wasser-, Boden-
y. Lufthyg. (Ger.) 17: 1 (41). Difficulties
with growth and sludge in water works sys-
tem. After new well connected to system
growth increased rapidly, slime contg. Lep-
totrix ochracea. Assumed that troubles en-
hanced by absence of atm. O2 and occasional
presence of free COz. Iron removal plant
built, compressed aeration of water followed
by gravel filters, and spraying filter efflu-
ent for re-aeration. Difficulties remained.
Thought that aeration insufficient, that rate
of filtration too high and filter media too

Cleveland (Ohio) Purification Report for 1944
L. A. MarsHALL. Cleveland and suburbs
supplied from Lake Erie. Two intakes 4.5
mi. offshore serve Baldwin plant and Division
Ave. plant. Total pumpage for ’44,
80,040.633 mil.gal.; increase of 3657 mil.gal.
over 43. No gas formers found in 3000
finished water samples. Deaths attributed to
typhoid 0.11 per 100,000 persons. Lower
bacteria counts in finished water attributed to
discontinuation of ammonia treatment. Open
Warrensville Res. on distr. system shows con-
tamn. presumed to have no san. significance.
Few red water complaints due to increase in
true chlorine residuals prevalent except at
distr. extremities. Division Ave. plant in-
creased production 4049 mil.gal. over °43.
Experienced short filter runs because of
algae. Normal settling time 3.5 hr. reduced
with one basin out of service for structural
faults. Infrequent carbon use for algae and
phenolic tastes. Major improvements: 2000
lb.-per-day chlorinator, extension of surface

WATER WORKS ANNUAL REPORTS -.

LITERATURE

large. Doubling filtration capac., increasing
aeration and covering gravel with Magno
did not help. Investigation showed that
shallow well water contained traces of org.
matter, while soluble manganous compds.
present in deep well water as well as relatively
high bicarbonate content. Combination of
these factors caused increased growth of iron
bacteria. Presence of traces of org. matter
and bicarbonate makes pptn. of manganous
compds. difficult by aeration alone. Correc-
tion: combined shallow and deep well water
sprayed into open tanks, addn. of lime water
after aeration, addn. of 1 ppm. sodium
aluminate to ppt. org. matter, followed by _

sand filtration.—Willem Rudolfs.

N-Chlorosuccinimide as a Water Decontam-

inant. Gro. F. ReEppIsSH & ALFRED W.
PAULEY Sr. Bul. Natl. Formulary Com.
13: 11 (’45). Expts. indicate that N-chlo-

rosuccinimide in dosage of 2-grain tablet to 1
qt. of H,O will kill within 5-10 min. large
numbers of intestinal pathogenic bacteria at
various temps. in presence of org. matter;
non-toxic in concns. effective in decontaminat-
ing drinking water, stable in powder and
tablet form, and not readily affected by org. —
matter in H,O.—C.A.

sweeps, condensation pans on chlorinator—
scales and added fire protection. Baldwin |
plant increased production 1147 mil.gal. over —
43. Algae, Mougetia in particular, re-
sponsible for short filter runs. Carbon used
infrequently for algae and phenolic tastes. |
Major improvements: 2000-lb.-per-day chlo-
rinator, monorail and hoist for ton cylinders,
extension of surface filter sweep, new wash
water pump rotor and cone valves for wash
water pump. See table for anals.
DIVISION

BALDWIN AVE.
PLANT PLANT
Purification (avgs.)
Filtered water—med. 122.046 96.644
Filter runs—hr. 24. 18.
Wash water used—% 2.89 4.13
Raw water turbidity—ppm. 11.7 14.3
Settled water turbidity
ppm. 2.1 a
Filtered water turbidity
ppm. 0 0

896 oom JOURNAL—AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION

Division
PLANT PLANT
1 reatment—ppm.
Alum 14.7 16.8
Pre-chlorine 1.08 1.04
Post-chlorine 0.60 0.61
Carbon (infrequent) 22
Analysis of Filtered Water—
ppm.
Ca (avg. monthly
composite) 35.2 35.1

Mg 8.7 9.0
Fe 0.07 0.04
25.0 28.3
Cl 19.0 18.0
SiO, a 1.7 2.1
Total solids 173.1 171.3

Chemical Determinations—

ppm. =
Alky. = i
Raw 91 93

Filtered 83 83
Oxygen consumed

Raw 3.0

Filtered 24
pH

Raw 8.1

Filtered
CO,

Raw 0.02

Filtered 3. 3.2
Total hardness—Filtered 120 121
Chlorine Residuals—ppm.
Finished water (acid tit.) 0.57 0.70

Bacteria

37° Bact./ml.
Avg. raw 155 152
Avg. finished . 0+ 0.04

Coliforms/100 ml.

Avg. raw 76.2 57.1

Avg. finished 0 0
Total Cost of Water Purif.—

$/mil.gal. 7.665 8.108

Annual Report (For Year Ending December
31, 1944), Denver (Colo.) Board of Water
Comrs. Water consumption avgd. 76.71
Max. day
Plant able to keep pace with
nity and has supplied

mgd. or 188 gpd. per capita.
172.48 mil.gal.

Vol. 38

army camps, war industries and about 6500
victory gardens without interruption to
regular service. Board authorized use of
water for vacant lot victory garden on basis
of $1.00 for lot 25’ X 150’ or smaller, with
City Council assuming payment of it out of
general revenue. Income ‘44, $3,307,459.
disbursement, operation and maint.
$1,036,131 (31.3%); depreciation $619,164
(18.7%); capital expense $1,320,394 (39.9%).
invested capital $331,770 (10.1%). First
cost of plant $43,943,188; investment
$2,800,000. Capital liabilities $21,931,000,
Cost per mil.gal. delivered (including 4%
interest on investment), $117.59. Total
services 81,776, active meters 3212. Revenue
28.9% of total. 576 services added in '44,
System consists of 115 mi. of 12” to 84” con-
duits and 855 mi. of 12” to 48” mains in
distr. system. 4558 fire hydrants. Avg,
anal.—South Platte Source: total hardness
122 ppm., pH 7.5, temp. 15.0°C. Moffat
Diversion Source: total hardness 58 ppm.,
pH 7.4, temp. 8.7°C. Source of supply for
city consumption, South Platte R. 46%,
Fraser R. 23%, storage 20% and Cherry and
Bear Creeks 11%. Employees have Mutual
Benefit Assn. and Credit Union. During "44
retirement plan introduced providing for
retirement at 70 with pension of $3 per mo.
for each year’s service, max. $100. Cost to
employee $3 per mo. Board also has group
insurance providing for $1,000 policy at cost of
$12 annually to each employee. Continued
investigation for dam site for Two Fork Res.—
O. R. Elting.

30th Annual Report (1944), Elmira (N.Y.)
Water Board. Water supply system ad-
ministered by 5-man board of citizens through
gen. mgr. Present members have been in
office 25, 16, 13, 6 and 3 yr. City acquired
system by purchase in '15. System supplies
66,000 consumers with 90 gpd. per capita
through 165 mi. of mains and 15,524 }” to 10”
meters on 14,984 services 100% metered.
618 hydrants within city and 209 in township.
Water consumption 5.94 mgd., compared
with 6.34 and 6.18 for ’44 and '43 resp. Hoff-
man Creek Res., with watershed of 5 sq.mi.
and capac. 150 mil.gal., furnishes } to } total
water by gravity to treatment plant; balance
low-lifted from Chemung R. From 24 rapid
sand filters water delivered to 3.5-mil.gal.
filtered water open reservoir. For emergency
this reservoir will furnish 20 psi. to downtown

.
9th
q

Vol. 38

ut 6500
tion to
use of
mn basis
r, with
Out of
107,459.
Maint.
619,164
39.9%)
First
-stment
31,000,
ng 4%
Total
evenue
in "44,
4” con-
ains in
Avg.
ardness
Moffat
ppm.,
ply for
46%,
‘ry and
Mutual
‘ing '44
ng for
er mo.
to
group
cost of
itinued
Res.—

(N.Y.)
m ad-
hrough
een in
quired
ipplies
capita
to 10”
etered.
mnship.
npared

Hoff-
sq.-mi.
total
alance
| rapid
nil.gal.
rgency
ntown

1946 WATER WORKS

dist. Elec. pumps deliver water to 5-mil.gal.
open equalizing reservoir through series of
spray nozzles for aeration. Covered 1.5-
mil.gal. balancing reservoir aids in maintg.
uniform adequate pressures. Operating rev-
enue $303,279; operating costs $198,559, in-
cluding $37,772 depreciation; non-operating
revenue $2,540; interest costs $4,477; gross
income $102,783; bonds retired $60,000; net
income $42,783. Assets: plant $2,734,315;
postwar constr. fund $74,464; customer's
deposits $27,459; other $190,297; total
$3,026,535. Liabilities: bonds payable
$60,000; customer’s deposits $27,979; de-
preciations $512,672; contributed aid to
constr. $18,495; other $39,336; city equity
$2,368,199; total $3,026,535. Bond payment
Apr. '45 will make system free of outstanding
obligations. Water board furnishes fire pro-
tection and water for munic. services without
charge to city. Estd. value of this service is
$37,000 annually. Rate reductions effective
July ‘45 reflect saving of $40,000 annually by

consumers.—O. R. Elting.

Larchmont, N.Y., Water Works Report 1944.
Water consumption 0.779 mgd. Max. day
1.219 mil.gal. Water obtained from Shel-
drake R. Rainfall 36.93’, 6.06’ below nor-
mal. Use of reservoir for flood control in
spring contributed to its excessive depletion;
about 25 mil.gal. lost. Practice to be dis-
continued. Water supply filtered. Raw
water chlorinated with 31.1 Ib./mil.gal. and
filtered water with 3.8 lb./mil.gal. Residual
chlorine in clear well 0.33 ppm.—0O. R. Elting.

9th Annual Report (1944) Little Rock (Ark.),

Munic. Water Works. 3 man board of
comrs. Pop. of city 100,600; pop. served,
125,800. Per capita consumption 72 gpd.;

21,369 consumers an increase of 91 for year.
Income of $874,694 exceeded ’43 income by
$33,473. Fixed assets of $7,355,390 and cash
reserve of $848,150 offset by capital liabilities
and funded reserves of $6,426,935. Federal
grant of $319,002 carried as surplus. Treated
water production totaled 4,071.6 mil.gal.,
while sales of raw water totaled 508 mil.gal.
Surface water supply, watershed of 43 sq.mi.
Normal rainfall of 48” furnishes normal runoff
of 14 bil.gal. impounded in reservoir of 14-
bil.gal. capac. 39” pipeline 35 mi. long,
capac. 23.5 mgd., delivers water to 92-mil.gal.
auxiliary storage reservoir and 51-mgd.
filtration plant. Water production for ‘44

897

LITERATURE
avged. 11.12 mgd. with max. day of 15.91
mil.gal. Water delivered has total hardness
of 20 ppm. Elec. pumping station rated
capac. of 12.75 mgd. Distr. system of 121.8
mi. of 4” to 24” mains and 121.4 mi. of 1” to
3” mains delivers water to 978 hydrants and
21,184 meters. 15,000 fingerlings, placed in
rearing pond at impounding reservoir in May,
vielded about 7000 fish in October. Org.
growth control in 39” pipeline by break-point
chlorination continued throughout year.
Encouragement of victory garden program
by reduced rates for water tised from June to
Oct. '44 in excess of that used for correspond-
ing period of '42 was accepted by 2700 con-
sumers or 15% of domestic consumers. Total
saving to consumers $8,000.—O. R. Elting.

87th Annual Report (For Year Ending De-
cember 31, 1944), Louisville (Ky.) Water Co.
Year’s revenues and net earnings highest on
record. In general, costs held to same amt.
asin’43. Revenues were $2,637,945, increase
of $93,767 over '43. Net profit $1,367,942,
increase of $17,638 over ‘43. During °44,
$1,300,000 in dividends paid to Sinking Fund
Board. Bonded indebtedness of $1,000,000
offset by sinking fund reserve of $914,921.
Cash reserve fund of $1,000,000 in govt.
securities earmarked for expansion and im-
provements increased to $1,400,000. Fixed
capital is valued at $22,083,003. Pop. of city
and county estd. at 375,000. Original constr.
in ’50. System owned by city and managed
by board. Ohio R. is source of supply.
Water pumped to reservoir and repumped to
system 58.01 mgd., increase of 4.01 mgd. over
‘43. Pumpage avgd. 70 mgd. for month of
June with max. day of 79.0 mgd. Max.
hourly consumption was 131.4 mgd. evening
of July 18, exceeding ’43 max. of 105.7 mgd.
Water Co. rebated 50% of price of water to

some 1500 victory gardeners. Consumers in-
creased 538. Active services total 76,358; |
100% metered. Distr. system totals 742.41

mi., 5.74 mi. added during year. Cost of |
pumping of Riverside Station (elec. pumping —
with steam standby) $6.3516 per mil.gal. or
$3.248 per mil.gal. raised 100’, compared with
$6.1615 and $3.185, resp., for ’43. Crescent
Hill Station $7.4486 per mil.gal. and $5.347
per mil.gal. 100’ high, compared to $6.6115
and $4.750, resp., for '43. Total cost of
purif. $6.068 per mil.gal. divided: superin-—
tendence $0.597; operating labor $1.284;
chems. $2.765; wash water $0.487; heat, light

898 _ JOURNAL—AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION Vol 2

and power $0.292; supplies $0.111; maint.
$0.531. Avg. length filter runs: East filters
37.87 hr.; South filters 35.08 hr.; North
filters not operated. Wash water 2.66% of
total filtered. Avg. chem. dosage (in gpg./-
mil.gal. filtered): alum 0.80, pebble lime
0.415; (in Ib./mil.gal. filtered): Cl 19.55,
ammonium sulfate 4.04, activated carbon
(intermittent use only) 20.00. Following
detns. made:

Coag-
Raw Settled ulated Filtered

37° Count 5561 4663 1722 2.34
Coliform organ- 915 304 28 O

isms per 100

ml.
Turbidity, ppm. 122 67 10 O
\lky., ppm. 48 45 40 50

Potal hardness of filtered water 145 ppm.; pH
7.9; total solids 279 ppm.; chloride 35.6.
Recession of water supplies in areas used by
war industries created unusual demands on
system. One concern increased its annual
demand from 389 mil.gal. in '43 to 2273
mil.gal. in ‘44. Increased cost of chems.
largely ascribable to high deg. of river poln.
Elimn. of tastes and odors prime purpose of
first project for plant improvement, including
softening, automatic chem. control and _ in-
creased coagulation. This and 60” force
main from river pumping station to reservoir
expected to be completed in ‘45. Other
project for early consideration is elec. pumping
equip. for Chestnut Hill Plant. .\ddnl.
filters and 60” transmission main may be
needed before '50.—O. R. Elting.

51st Annual Report (For Year Ending Sep-
tember 30, 1944), Munic. Service Com.,
Wyandotte, Mich. Pop. 32,000. Munici-
pally-owned elec. and water utils. operated
since '26 by 5-man board. Comrs. appointed
by mayor and contirmed by council; serve
without compensation. Elec. div. had net
income of $322,746 or 45% of revenue re-
ceived after all charges, including depreci-
ation, had been deducted. Dividend of 10%
on annual bills paid customers from net
revenue. Elec. power supplied increased 3%
over previous year. Elec. plant with de-
preciated value of $1,775,382, is debt free and
there is extension fund of $572,149 invested
in federal securities. Cost of elec. energy to
consumer: residence 2.5¢, commercial 2.8¢,
and power 1.8¢ per kwhr., subject to 10%
annual dividend. Capac. of plant 18,300

kva.; power generated 33,039,000 kwhr. to
9,248 consumers. Water div. net income
$72,229 after all charges including depregj.
ation had been deducted. Assets of diy
include depreciated plant $1,318,672 and jg.
vestment of $216,868 in federal funds,
Bonded debt $487,919. Income of $207,58)
spent as follows: pumping 9.5%; puri,
13.4%; distr. 19.4%; office and admin, 7.6%:
interest 11.2%; other expense 4.1%; net in.
come (surplus) 34.8%. Fixed capital (de.
preciated) $41.21 per ‘onaieh or $176.10 per
customer; operating revenue per Customer
$27.40. Average consumption 3.42 mgd, of
107 gpd. per capita. Max. pumping at rate
of 6 mgd. Plant has six 1-mgd. rapid sand
filters with 1.4 mil.gal. underground storage
and 0.5 mil.gal. elevated storage. P umping
capac. of 14.8 mgd. Distr. system 92 mi. of
2” to 30” mains serve 746 hydrants and 7627
services.—O. R. Elting.

Annual Report, Calgary (Ont.), 1944. Avoy.
W.W.Inf. Exch.—Can. Sec. A.W.W.A. 6: E:
22: 39 (Dec. ’45). Pop. 97,241. ‘Treatment
is rapid sand filtration and chlorination,
Assets $51.11, revenue $8.88, expenditures
$8.01 per capita.—R. E. Thompson.

Annual Report, Chatham (Ont.), 1944,
Anon. W.W. Inf. Exch.—Can. Sec. 6: E:
15: 29 (May '45). Pop. 22,000. Supply
from Thames R., filtered and chlorinated,
Max. and avg. consumption 3.99 and 2.83
mgd. (U.S.), latter equiv. to 127 gpd. per
capita. Alum 30.7 ppm., ammonium sulfate
77 ppm. and Cl 14.3 Ib./mil.gal. Cost per
1000 gal. 7.4¢, revenue 13.7¢. Receipts
$160,838.98. No debenture debt.—R. £,
Thompson.

Annual Report, Guelph (Ont.), 1944. Avoy.
W.W. Inf. Exch.—Can. Sec. A.W.W.A. 6:
EK: 13: 26 (May '45). Supply from springs
and deep wells; former chlorinated. Max.
consumption 5.24 mgd.; avg. 4.38 mgd., or
185 gpd. per capita. Pop. 23,079. Pumping
cost $12.23 per mil.gal., including 29¢ for
purif.—R. E. Thompson.

Annual Report, Kingston (Ont.), 1944. ANov.
W.W. Inf. Exch.—Can. Sec. A.W.W.A. 6: E:
21: 38 (Dec. °45). Lake Ontario water
treated by chlorination. Max. pumpage 7.61
mgd. Revenue $134,438.04 and net profit
$17,240.58. Assets, including depreciation
allowed, $984,720.49. Debentures outstand-
ing $261,601.21.—R. E. Thompson.

:
.
|

Vol, 3

Whr. tg
income
deprecj.
of diy,
and jp.
funds,
$207, 58)
purif,

7.6%:
net me.
tal (de.
ustomer
mgd, or
at rate
Did sand
storage
*umping
2 mi. of
nd 7627

ANoy,
\. 6:
satment
ination,
iditures

1944,
. 6: E;
Supply
rinated,
1d 2.83
pd. per
sulfate
Ost per

ANON,
V.A. 6:
springs

Max.
gd., or
imping
9¢ for

ANON.
\. 6: E:
water
ge 7.01
profit
Cia tion
tstand-

Annual Report, Kitchener (Ont.), 1944. ANon.
W.W. Inf. Exch.—Can. Sec. A.W.W.A. 6: E:
16:30 (May '45). Pop. 36,797, supplied from
wells, without treatment. Max. daily con-
sumption 6.2 mgd.; avg. 4.6, 125 gpd. per
capita. Nearly 100% metered. Avg. cost
of } lead service $28.44 or $1.12 per ft.
Total revenue $124,465.40; disbursements
$85,223.66. Total assets $1,856,198.35 or
$50.45 per capita. Hydrant rental $26 per

vr.—R. E. Thompson.

Annual Report, London (Ont.), 1944, Anon.
W.W. Inf. Exch.—Can. Sec. A.W.W.A. 6: E:
17: 32 (Aug. 45). Consumption 7.5 mgd. by
metered pop. of 87,567 or 85.6 gpd. per
capita. Avg. monthly net bill: domestic $1.06,
commercial $9.51. Assets $3,529,621.36.—
Rk. E. Thompson.

Annual Report, Ottawa (Ont.), 1944. ANon.
W.W. Inf. Exch.—Can. Sec. A.W.W.A. 6: E:
20: 36 (Dec. '45). Ottawa R. water treated
by gravity mech. filtration and chlorination.
Avg. pumpage 22.18 mgd., 117 gpd. per
capita by 189,445 pop., 25,755 outside city
limits. Avg. rate of filtration 71.96 mgd./
acre; length of runs 70.13 hr.; wash water
1.87%. Avg. chem. dosages: alum 2.67, lime
0.83, activated C (Aug.) 0.581 ppm., Cl 0.33
ppm. Total chem. cost $8.82 per mil.gal.
Metering: 8.98% of services, delivering 40.6%
of water supplied. Revenue and expenditures
per capita $5.89 and $5.69, resp.—R. E.
Thompson.

Annual Report, Stratford (Ont.), 1944.
\won. W.W. Inf. Exch.—Can. Sec. A.W.
W.A. 6: E: 14:27 (May ’45). Public Utilities
Com. operates elec., gas and water services.
Pop. 17,413. Supply from wells. No treat-
ment, chlorination equip. for emergencies.
Consumption 101 gpd. per capita. Rates
4.5-15¢ per 100 cu.ft., less 10% for prompt-
ness. Min. monthly bill 50¢ gross. Mains
13.5’ per capita. Services 95% metered.
Valves, 8 per mi. of mains. Revenue
$61,913.92. Operation and maint. cost
$52,229.62; $3 per capita. Profit $9,684.30.
Cost per 1000 gal. $6.53; revenue $7.60.
R. E. Thompson.

Annual Report, Tisdale Township (Ont.), 1944.
Anon. W.W. Inf. Exch.—Can. Sec. A.W.
W.A. 6: E: 18: 33 (Aug. '45). Supply to

South Porcupine from springs and to Schu-
Mattagami

macher from R. Pop. 7260.

Iuly 1946 pores WATER WORKS LITERATURE

899

Revenue $85,231.14, surplus $17,740.87. As-

sets $170,479.47 or $23.50 per capita.—R. E
Thompson. =
Annual Report, Woodstock (Ont.), 1944

Anon. W.W. Inf. Exch.—Can. Sec. A.W.
W.A. 6: E: 12: 24 (Apr. '45). Supply from —
springs and well chlorinated. Served

15,875; 2959 outside city. Mostly unmet-—
ered. Max. and avg. pumpage 3.37 and 2.06.
mgd., latter equiv. to 129 gpd. per capita.
Revenue $45,527.60 and _ expenditures
$36,696.14. No outstanding debentures.—
R. E. Thompson.

The Baghdad District Water Board. ANoNn.
Wtr. & Wtr. Eng. (Br.) 49: 41 (Jan. '46).
Report for year ending Mar. 31, '44. Water
pumped from 4 stations on River Tigris. _
Main works at Sarrafiya transferred about
750,000 gpd. (Imp.) to Baghdad West area.

At Shalchiya works considerable anxiety as —
load on dynamo plant installed in '29 in-
creased. Emergency rearrangements maintd.
supply satisfactorily. At Karrada Works
trouble experienced due to silting at intake.
Minor training works constructed about 2 _
km. upstream. Results moderately success-—
ful but flow little in excess of requirements.
Trouble experienced in filters due to ll
dischgd. from Araq distilleries only 0.5 km.
upriver. Health authorities had to close 7
distilleries for 4 days pending adoption of
satisfactory methods of waste disposal.
Filters treated, scoured and top sand to depth

of 12” replaced. Date skins in distillery
effluent formed nutrient matter for bacteria
and addn. of oil apparent in filters. Dose of
chlorine absorbed immediately. Second dose
applied in high-level tanks. Numerous com-
plaints of very bad “rotten egg’’ smell and _
taste. Concluded that these due to iron _
bacteria, so aeration and pre-chlorination in-—
troduced. Adequate quants. of essential —
maint. materials received. Stocks of sulfate _
of alumina fell low at end of '42. Pipes,
fittings and accessories used in very small —
quants. compared with normal times. Major 7
capital works have been in abeyance. Ex-
tension of mains for filtered water made only :
in isolated cases, mostly connecting dead ends —
to improve circulation. Much of silt de- —
posited in mains before '35 has been washed
out through flushing points and consumers’
taps, but part remains. Tests of mains ©
showed coli absent in 100 ml. and spreading —
organisms present. Two special investiga-

900 ‘JOURNAL—-AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION Vol.3

tions made. One indicated that recontamn.
of water supply not likely from old pipes laid
down before chlorination introduced. Other
was endeavor to find out if amt. of chlorine
being added was sufficient to produce and
maint. sterilization. Resulted suggested ini-
tial dose of 0.3 ppm. provides adequate
sterilization after 14 hr.—H. E. Babbitt.

39th Annual Report (For Year Ending
March 31, 1944), Rand (South Africa)
Water Board. Board supplies water in
bulk to Transvaal Chamber of Mines, South
African Ry. Admin. and 16 municipalities
and villages covering area of 3980 sq.mi.
Pop. of villages 644,893 Europeans and
938,920 non-Europeans, total 1,583,813. "44
supply: max. 69.34 mgd., min. 48.05 mgd.;
avg.57.53 mgd. '43 and '42 avgd. 57.78 and
57.95 mgd. Pop. of munic. areas 1,212,485;
European 475,610; non-European 737,875.
This pop. within area of 536 sq.mi. supplied
with avg. of 25.70 mgd., remainder going to
goldmines and railway plus 2.79 mgd. to
minor consumers. ‘Total avg. price of water
in bulk 11.24d per 1000 gal.—divided 4.13d
working costs, 1.87d betterment and reserve
funds and 5.24d fixed charges. Source of
supply is diversion rights to 150 mgd. from
Vaal R. and 10 mgd. from various boreholes
and wells. 23.45 mgd. from river have been
disposed of but recent legislation not yet
gazetted will add 65 mgd. from river. Pot-
able water developed 70 mgd. Rainfall at
Joubert Park avgs. 52.16”, as compared with
37.46” in previous year and 55-yr. normal of
33.43”. Rainfall over Witwatersrand 46.40”
or 160% of 40-yr. avg. of 28.99’. Rainfall
at Vaal R. Barrage 34.27’, or 108% of 40-yr.
avg. of 25.94". Floods in Vaal Basin resulted
in 8.2’ overflow at Barrage corresponding to
flow of 67,000 mgd. Only minor damage
caused to pumping equip. Board’s pipelines
total 446 mi. of pumping and gravitation
mains and 13 mi. of collecting mains with
16.38 mil.gal. storage at pumping station and
69.83 mil.gal. at various high points. Johan-
nesburg has 31.68 mil.gal. storage addnl.
System extends 36 mi. from Vaal River at
Vereeniging to Central Rand and 80 mi. along

Witwatersrand from Libanon on west ty
Nigel on east. No mains laid or lifted by
4700’ of 27” main reconditioned. Zurary.

kopjes Zuurbekom transmission line supplieg
avg. demand of 1688 kw. at Zuurbekom
Pump Station. 24 outages during year with
154 hr. of lost pumping time. Zwartkopjes
Pumping Station used 116,646 tons coal
(9460 Btu.) and Vereeniging Pump Statigg
used 59.635 tons (9246 Btu.). Cost per top
6s plus 6d for crushing. Avg. cost of raising
1000 gal. 100’ was 0.1023d. Evapn. of Ib, of
steam per Ib. of coal avgd. 6.09. Vaaldam,
with capac. of 234,471 mil.gal. full and over.
flowing throughout year. Evapn. from water
surface 54.51’. Water supplied in Johannes.
burg contained avg. of 13 organisms with no
coliform organisms. Water treated with 103
to 171 ppm. of lime and 4.28 to 6.85 ppm. of
aluminum sulfate with sufficient CO, tp
reduce pH from 10.5 to 8.2. Then filtered
at rate of 42 to 65 gal. per sq.ft. After
filtration water treated with 0.1 ppm. am.
monium sulfate, and 0.32 to 0.46 ppm. of
chlorine. Copper sulfate used to control
algae growth in basins and open reservoirs,
Avg. rate 0.35 ppm. Cost of chems. 0.4424
per 1000 gal. Works to increase potable
supply 20 mgd. to give total of 90 mgd. under
constr. War condition has prevented com-
pletion of piping or mfr. of generators. At
Vereeniging Station contemplated work in-
cludes 15-mgd. filter plant, two boilers
(32,000 Ib. steam per hr.); two 20-mgd. elec.-
driven centrifugal pumps; blower of 350
cfm. for carbonation plant; revision of primary
sedimentation tank. At Zwartkopjes Sta
tion addnl. equip. of two 20-mgd. elec:
driven centrifugal pumps and two boilers
(50,000 Ib. steam per hr.) will be installed.
4 addnl. reservoirs, with total capac. of 65
mil.gal., included in program. 2 with capac,
of 20 mil.gal. in service. Estd. cost of addnl,
works £2,000,000. Board employs 1746 men:
372 Europeans and 1374 natives. Cost of
plant to date approx. £10,211,000. Out
standing indebtedness £5,255,292, less re
demption fund of £1,768,132. Board owns
investments of £194,611 and has cash balance
of £131,685.—O. R. Elting.

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Full text of "Journal of the American Water Works Association 1946-07: Vol 38 Iss 7"

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